Abstract
Raindrop images obtained on research flights of the NCAR Electra aircraft in the Tropical Oceans Global Atmosphere Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Response Experiment (TOGA COARE) are analyzed. The drop size distributions, based on the images obtained in 6-s samples (about 750 m of flight track), are used to calculate both radar reflectivity Z and rain rate R. Airborne radar data from the NOAA P-3 aircraft flying in coordination with the Electra are used to categorize the particle-image data according to whether the drop images were obtained in regions of convective or stratiform precipitation.
Within stratiform precipitation, the same rain rate could be produced by a drop spectrum dominated by numerous small drops (lower reflectivity) or by a few large drops (higher reflectivity). The reflectivity values varied by as much as 9 dB for a given rain rate. Reflectivity data from the airborne radar and flight-level data reveal that the stratiform regions often contain fallstreaks of about 0.1–2 km in horizontal dimension. The fallstreaks are associated with large-drop spectra and local maxima in reflectivity up to approximately 40 dBZ and in rain rates up to 25 mm h−1. The fallstreaks extend downward from the melting band and bend with the low-level wind shear, but do not usually reach the surface. Thus, although relatively more uniform than convective regions, stratiform regions can be variable in reflectivity and rain rate at fine spatial scales in both the horizontal and vertical directions. Stratiform regions are therefore best characterized by their ensemble properties rather than the values of individual high-resolution measurements.
The variability of stratiform drop size spectra arises primarily from the occurrence of fallstreaks and the discontinuous nature of regions favoring aggregation of snow crystals, and it implies that Z–R distributions associated with convective and stratiform precipitation are not statistically distinct. Thus, separate Z–R relations for convective and stratiform precipitation are not justified, and techniques to distinguish between convective and stratiform precipitation based solely on the characteristics of drop size distributions are not likely to be accurate.
The variability of the drop size spectra in tropical precipitation makes an exponential fit to the Z–R relation sensitive to the spatial scale over which Z and R are determined. This sensitivity can be avoided by using a probability-matched Z–R relation. The probability-matched Z–R relation for all the raindrop image data from the Electra collected between altitudes of 2.7 and 3.3 km in TOGA COARE is similar to the Z–R relation obtained at the sea surface in the Global Atmospheric Research Program Atlantic Tropical Experiment.
Corresponding author address: Dr. Sandra E. Yuter, Dept. of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Washington, Box 351640, Seattle, WA 98195.
