Editorial Type:
Article
Article Type:
Research Article

A Prognostic Parameterization for the Subgrid-Scale Variability of Water Vapor and Clouds in Large-Scale Models and Its Use to Diagnose Cloud Cover

Adrian M. Tompkins Max-Planck-Institut für Meteorologie, Hamburg, Germany

Search for other papers by Adrian M. Tompkins in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
Print Publication:
01 Jun 2002
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(2002)059<1917:APPFTS>2.0.CO;2
Page(s):
1917–1942
Restricted access

Abstract

A parameterization for the horizontal subgrid-scale variability of water vapor and cloud condensate is introduced, which is used to diagnose cloud fraction in the spirit of statistically based cloud cover parameterizations. High-resolution cloud-resolving model data from tropical deep convective scenarios were used to justify the choice of probability density function (PDF). The PDF selected has the advantage of being bounded above and below, avoiding the complications of negative or infinite water mixing ratios, and can give both negatively and positively skewed functions as well as symmetric Gaussian-like bell-shaped curves, without discrete transitions, and is mathematically straightforward to implement.

A development from previous statistical parameterizations is that the new scheme is prognostic, with processes such as deep convection, turbulence, and microphysics directly affecting the distribution of higher-order moments of variance and skewness. The scheme is able to represent the growth and decay of cirrus cloud decks and also the creation of cloud in clear sky or breakup of an overcast cloud deck by boundary layer turbulence. After introducing the mathematical framework, results using the parameterization in a climate model are shown to illustrate its behavior. The parameterization is shown to reduce cloud cover biases almost globally, with a marked improvement in the stratocumulus regions in the eastern Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.

Current affiliation: ECMWF, Shinfield Park, Reading, United Kingdom

Corresponding author address: Dr. Adrian M. Tompkins, ECMWF, Shinfield Park, Reading, Berkshire RG2 9AX, United Kingdom. Email: Tompkins@ecmwf.int

Abstract

A parameterization for the horizontal subgrid-scale variability of water vapor and cloud condensate is introduced, which is used to diagnose cloud fraction in the spirit of statistically based cloud cover parameterizations. High-resolution cloud-resolving model data from tropical deep convective scenarios were used to justify the choice of probability density function (PDF). The PDF selected has the advantage of being bounded above and below, avoiding the complications of negative or infinite water mixing ratios, and can give both negatively and positively skewed functions as well as symmetric Gaussian-like bell-shaped curves, without discrete transitions, and is mathematically straightforward to implement.

A development from previous statistical parameterizations is that the new scheme is prognostic, with processes such as deep convection, turbulence, and microphysics directly affecting the distribution of higher-order moments of variance and skewness. The scheme is able to represent the growth and decay of cirrus cloud decks and also the creation of cloud in clear sky or breakup of an overcast cloud deck by boundary layer turbulence. After introducing the mathematical framework, results using the parameterization in a climate model are shown to illustrate its behavior. The parameterization is shown to reduce cloud cover biases almost globally, with a marked improvement in the stratocumulus regions in the eastern Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.

Current affiliation: ECMWF, Shinfield Park, Reading, United Kingdom

Corresponding author address: Dr. Adrian M. Tompkins, ECMWF, Shinfield Park, Reading, Berkshire RG2 9AX, United Kingdom. Email: Tompkins@ecmwf.int

Save
Cover Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences
Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences

  • Bacher, A., J. M. Oberhuber, and E. Roeckner, 1998: ENSO dynamics and seasonal cycle in the tropical Pacific as simulated by the ECHAM4/OPYC3 coupled general circulation model. Climate Dyn., 14 , 431–450.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Barker, H. W., 1996: A parameterization for computing grid-averaged solar fluxes for inhomogeneous marine boundary layer clouds. Part I: Methodology and homogeneous biases. J. Atmos. Sci., 53 , 2289–2303.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Barker, H. W., B. A. Wielicki, and L. Parker, 1996: A parameterization for computing grid-averaged solar fluxes for inhomogeneous marine boundary layer clouds. Part II: Validation using satellite data. J. Atmos. Sci., 53 , 2304–2316.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Barker, H. W., G. L. Stephens, and Q. Fu, 1999: The sensitivity of domain-averaged solar fluxes to assumptions about cloud geometry. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 125 , 2127–2152.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bechtold, P., C. Fravalo, and J. P. Pinty, 1992: A model of marine boundary-layer cloudiness for mesoscale applications. J. Atmos. Sci., 49 , 1723–1744.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bechtold, P., J. W. M. Cuijpers, P. Mascart, and P. Trouilhet, 1995: Modeling of trade-wind cumuli with a low-order turbulence model—Toward a unified description of Cu and Sc clouds in meteorological models. J. Atmos. Sci., 52 , 455–463.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bergman, J. W., and H. H. Hendon, 2000: The impact of clouds on the seasonal cycle of radiative heating over the Pacific. J. Atmos. Sci., 57 , 545–566.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Blackadar, A. K., 1962: The vertical distribution of wind and turbulent exchange in a neutral atmosphere. J. Geophy. Res., 67 , 3095–3102.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bougeault, P., 1981: Modeling the trade-wind cumulus boundary-layer. Part I: Testing the ensemble cloud relations against numerical data. J. Atmos. Sci., 38 , 2414–2428.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bougeault, P., . 1982: Cloud ensemble relations based on the Gamma probability distribution for the high-order models of the planetary boundary layer. J. Atmos. Sci., 39 , 2691–2700.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bretherton, C. S., and P. K. Smolarkiewicz, 1989: Gravity waves, compensating subsidence and detrainment around cumulus clouds. J. Atmos. Sci., 46 , 740–759.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Brown, P. R. A., and H. A. Swann, 1997: Evaluation of key microphysical parameters in three dimensional cloud model simulations using aircraft and multiparameter radar data. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 123 , 2245–2275.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Brown, R,G., and C. Zhang, 1997: Variability of midtropospheric moisture and its effect on cloud-top height distribution during TOGA COARE. J. Atmos. Sci., 54 , 2760–2774.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cahalan, R. F., W. Ridgway, W. J. Wiscombe, T. L. Bell, and J. B. Snider, 1994: The albedo of fractal stratocumulus clouds. J. Atmos. Sci., 51 , 2434–2455.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cairns, B., A. A. Lacis, and B. E. Carlson, 2000: Absorption within inhomogeneous clouds and its parameterization in general circulation models. J. Atmos. Sci., 57 , 700–714.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Chen, C. T., and E. Roeckner, 1997: Cloud simulations with the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology general circulation model ECHAM4 and comparison with observations. J. Geophys. Res., 102 , 9335–9350.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cusack, S., J. M. Edwards, and R. Kershaw, 1999: Estimating the subgrid variance of saturation, and its parametrization for use in a GCM cloud scheme. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 125 , 3057–3076.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Davis, A., A. Marshak, W. Wiscombe, and R. Cahalan, 1996: Scale invariance of liquid water distributions in marine stratocumulus. Part I: Spectral properties and stationarity issues. J. Atmos. Sci., 53 , 1538–1558.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Deardorff, J. W., 1974a: Three dimensional numerical study of a heated planetary boundary layer. Bound.-Layer Meteor., 7 , 81–106.

  • Deardorff, J. W., . 1974b: Three dimensional numerical study of turbulence in an entraining mixed layer. Bound.-Layer Meteor., 7 , 199–226.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • DelGenio, A. D., M. S. Yao, W. Kovari, and K. K. W. Lo, 1996: A prognostic cloud water parameterization for global climate models. J. Climate, 9 , 270–304.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ek, M., and L. Mahrt, 1991: A formulation for boundary-layer cloud cover. Ann. Geophys., 9 , 716–724.

  • Emanuel, K. A., and R. T. Pierrehumbert, 1996: Microphysical and dynamical control of tropospheric water vapor. Clouds, Chemistry and Climate, P. J. Crutzen and V. Ramanathan, Eds., Springer, 17–28.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Essenwanger, O., 1976: Applied Statistics in Atmospheric Sciences. Elsevier, 412 pp.

  • Fowler, L. D., D. A. Randall, and S. A. Rutledge, 1996: Liquid and ice cloud microphysics in the CSU general circulation model. Part I: Model description and simulated cloud microphysical processes. J. Climate, 9 , 489–529.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Fu, Q., B. Carlin, and G. Mace, 2000: Cirrus horizontal inhomogeneity and OLR bias. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27 , 3341–3344.

  • Garratt, J. R., 1992: The Atmospheric Boundary Layer. Cambridge University Press, 316 pp.

  • Gates, W. L., and M. E. Schlesinger, 1977: Numerical-simulation of January and July global climate with a two-level atmospheric model. J. Atmos. Sci., 34 , 36–76.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ghan, S. J., L. R. Leung, and Q. Hu, 1997: Application of cloud microphysics to NCAR community climate model. J. Geophys. Res., 102 , 16507–16527.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Greenwald, T. J., G. L. Stephens, T. H. Vonderhaar, and D. L. Jackson, 1993: A physical retrieval of cloud liquid water over the global oceans using special sensor microwave imager (SSM/I) observations. J. Geophy. Res., 98 , 18471–18488.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Heymsfield, A. J., and L. M. Miloshevich, 1995: Relative humidity and temperature influences on cirrus formation and evolution: Observations from wave clouds and FIRE II. J. Atmos. Sci., 52 , 4302–4326.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Heymsfield, A. J., and G. M. McFarquhar, 1996: High albedos of cirrus in the Tropical Pacific Warm Pool: Microphysical interpretations from CEPEX and from Kwajalein, Marshall Islands. J. Atmos. Sci., 53 , 2424–2451.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Heymsfield, A. J., R. P. Lawson, and G. W. Sachse, 1998a: Growth of ice crystals in a precipitating contrail. Geophys. Res. Lett., 25 , 1335–1338.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Heymsfield, A. J., L. M. Miloshevich, C. Twohy, G. Sachse, and S. Oltmans, 1998b: Upper-tropospheric relative humidity observations and implications for cirrus ice nucleation. Geophys. Res. Lett., 25 , 1343–1346.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jakob, C., and S. A. Klein, 1999: The role of vertically varying cloud fraction in the parameterization of microphysical processes in the ECMWF model. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 125 , 941–965.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Johnson, N. L., and S. Kotz, 1970: Continuous Univariate Distributions-2. John Wiley and Sons, 306 pp.

  • Lappen, C-L., and D. A. Randall, 2001: Toward a unified parameterization of the boundary layer and moist convection. Part I: A new type of mass-flux model. J. Atmos. Sci., 58 , 2021–2036.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Larson, V. E., R. Wood, P. R. Field, J. Golaz, T. H. VonderHaar, and W. R. Cotton, 2001a: Small-scale and mesoscale variability of scalars in cloudy boundary layers: One dimensional probability density functions. J. Atmos. Sci., 58 , 1978–1994.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Larson, V. E., . 2001b: Systematic biases in the microphysics and thermodynamics of numerical models that ignore subgrid-scale variability. J. Atmos. Sci., 58 , 1117–1128.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lenderink, G., and A. P. Siebesma, 2000: Combining the massflux approach with a statistical cloud scheme. Proc. 14th Symp. on Boundary Layers and Turbulence, Aspen, CO, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 66–69.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • LeTreut, H., and Z. X. Li, 1991: Sensitivity of an atmospheric general circulation model to prescribed SST changes: Feedback effects associated with the simulation of cloud optical properties. Climate Dyn., 5 , 175–187.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lewellen, W. S., and S. Yoh, 1993: Binormal model of ensemble partial cloudiness. J. Atmos. Sci., 50 , 1228–1237.

  • Liao, X., and D. Rind, 1997: Local upper tropospheric/lower stratospheric clear-sky water vapor and tropospheric deep convection. J. Geophys. Res., 102 , 19543–19557.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lin, Y. L., R. D. Farley, and H. D. Orville, 1983: Bulk parameterization of the snow field in a cloud model. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 22 , 1065–1092.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lohmann, U., and E. Roeckner, 1996: Design and performance of a new cloud microphysics scheme developed for the ECHAM general circulation model. Climate Dyn., 12 , 557–572.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Lohmann, U., and J. Feichter, 1997: Impact of sulphate aerosols on albedo and lifetime of clouds. J. Geophys. Res., 102 , 13685–13700.

  • Lohmann, U., N. McFarlane, L. Levkov, K. Abdella, and F. Albers, 1999: Comparing different cloud schemes of a single column model by using mesoscale forcing and nudging technique. J. Climate, 12 , 438–461.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Mannoji, N., 1995: An explicit cloud predicting scheme implemented in the Florida State University Global Spectral Model and its impact. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 73 , 993–1009.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Manzini, E., N. A. McFarlane, and C. McLandress, 1997: Impact of Doppler spread parameterization on the simulation of the middle atmosphere circulation using the MA/ECHAM4 general circulation model. J. Geophys. Res., 102 , 25751–25762.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Mason, P. J., and N. S. Callen, 1986: On the magnitude of the subgrid-scale eddy coefficient in large-eddy simulations of turbulent channel flow. J. Fluid Mech., 162 , 439–462.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Mason, P. J., and A. R. Brown, 1999: On subgrid models and filter operations in large eddy simulations. J. Atmos. Sci., 56 , 2101–2114.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Mellor, G. L., 1977: Gaussian cloud model relations. J. Atmos. Sci., 34 , 356–358.

  • Mlawer, E. J., S. J. Taubman, P. D. Brown, M. J. Iacono, and S. A. Clough, 1997: Radiative transfer for inhomogeneous atmospheres: RRTM, a validated correlated-k model for the longwave. J. Geophys. Res., 102 , 16663–16682.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Morcrette, J. J., and C. Jakob, 2000: The response of the ECMWF model to changes in the cloud overlap assumption. Mon. Wea. Rev., 128 , 1707–1732.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Moron, V., A. Navarra, M. N. Ward, and E. Roeckner, 1998: Skill and reproducibility of seasonal rainfall patterns in the Tropics in ECHAM4 GCM simulations with prescribed SST. Climate Dyn., 14 , 83–100.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Nishizawa, K., 2000: Parameterization of nonconvective condensation for low-resolution climate models: Comparison of diagnostic schemes for fractional cloud cover and cloud water content. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 78 , 1–12.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Nordeng, T. E., 1994: Extended versions of the convective parametrization scheme at ECMWF and their impact on the mean and transient activity of the model in the Tropics. ECMWF Tech. Memo 206, 41 pp. [Available from European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts, Shinfield Park, Reading RG2 9AX, United Kingdom.].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Oreopoulos, L., and H. W. Barker, 1999: Accounting for subgrid-scale cloud variability in a multi-layer 1D solar radiative transfer algorithm. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 125 , 301–330.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ose, T., 1993: An examination of the effects of explicit cloud water in the UCLA GCM. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 71 , 93–109.

  • Pierrehumbert, R. T., and H. Yang, 1993: Global chaotic mixing on isentropic surfaces. J. Atmos. Sci., 50 , 2462–2480.

  • Pincus, R., and S. A. Klein, 2000: Unresolved spatial variability and microphysical process rates in large-scale models. J. Geophys. Res., 105 , 27059–27065.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Pincus, R., S. A. McFarlane, and S. A. Klein, 1999: Albedo bias and the horizontal variability of clouds in subtropical marine boundary layers: Observations from ships and satellites. J. Geophys. Res., 104 , 6183–6191.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Pomroy, H. R., and A. J. Illingworth, 2000: Ice cloud inhomogeneity: Quantifying bias in emissivity from radar observations. Geophys. Res. Lett., 27 , 2101–2104.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Press, W. H., S. A. Teukolsky, W. T. Vetterling, and B. P. Flannery, 1992: Numerical Recipes in Fortran: The Art of Scientific Computing. 2d ed. Cambridge University Press, 963 pp.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Price, J. D., 2001: A study on boundary layer humidity distributions and errors in parameterised cloud fraction. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 127 , 739–759.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ramanathan, V., R. D. Cess, E. F. Harrison, P. Minnis, B. R. Barkstrom, E. Ahmad, and D. Hartmann, 1989: Cloud-radiative forcing and climate: Results from the earth radiation budget experiment. Science, 243 , 57–63.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Randall, D. A., and G. J. Huffman, 1980: A stochastic model of cumulus clumping. J. Atmos. Sci., 37 , 2068–2078.

  • Rasch, P. J., and M. Lawrence, 1998: Recent development in transport methods at NCAR. MPI workshop on conservative transport schemes, B. Machenhauer, Ed., MPI Tech. Memo. 265, 65–75. [Available from Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Bundesstr. 55, 20146 Hamburg, Germany.].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Raymond, D. J., 2000: The Hadley circulation as a radiative–convective instability. J. Atmos. Sci., 57 , 1286–1297.

  • Ricard, J. L., and J. F. Royer, 1993: A statistical cloud scheme for use in an AGCM. Ann. Geophys., 11 , 1095–1115.

  • Roeckner, E., and Coauthors. 1992: Simulation of present-day climate with the ECHAM model: Impact of model physics and resolution. MPI Tech. Memo. 93, 171 pp. [Available from Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Bundesstr. 55, 20146 Hamburg, Germany.].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Roeckner, E., and Coauthors. 1996: The atmospheric general circulation model ECHAM4: Model description and simulation of present-day climate. MPI Tech. Memo. 218, 90 pp. [Available from Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Bundesstr. 55, 20146 Hamburg, Germany.].

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rossow, W. B., and R. A. Schiffer, 1991: ISCCP cloud data products. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 72 , 2–20.

  • Rotstayn, L. D., 1997: A physically based scheme for the treatment of stratiform precipitation in large-scale models. I: Description and evaluation of the microphysical processes. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 123 , 1227–1282.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rotstayn, L. D., . 2000: On the “tuning” of autoconversion parameterizations in climate models. J. Geophys. Res., 105 , 15495–15507.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Schneider, S. H., W. M. Washington, and R. M. Chervin, 1978: Cloudiness as a climatic feedback mechanism—Effects on cloud amounts of prescribed global and regional surface-temperature changes in the NCAR-GCM. J. Atmos. Sci., 35 , 2207–2221.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Sellers, W. D., 1976: A two-dimensional global climatic model. Mon. Wea. Rev., 104 , 233–248.

  • Shutts, G. J., and M. E. B. Gray, 1994: A numerical modelling study of the geostrophic adjustment following deep convection. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 120 , 1145–1178.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Slingo, J. M., 1980: A cloud parameterization scheme derived from GATE data for use with a numerical-model. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 106 , 747–770.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Slingo, J. M., . 1987: The development and verification of a cloud prediction scheme for the ECMWF model. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 113 , 899–927.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Smagorinsky, J., 1963: General circulation experiments with the primative equations. I: The basic experiment. Mon. Wea. Rev., 91 , 99–164.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Smith, R. N. B., 1990: A scheme for predicting layer clouds and their water-content in a general-circulation model. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 116 , 435–460.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Sommeria, G., 1976: Three-dimensional simulation of turbulent processes in an undisturbed trade wind boundary layer. J. Atmos. Sci., 33 , 216–241.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Sommeria, G., and J. W. Deardorff, 1977: Subgrid-scale condensation in models of nonprecipitating clouds. J. Atmos. Sci., 34 , 344–355.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Stull, R. B., 1988: An Introduction to Boundary Layer Meteorology. Kluwer Academic, 666 pp.

  • Sundqvist, H., 1978: A parameterization scheme for non-convective condensation including prediction of cloud water content. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 104 , 677–690.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Sundqvist, H., E. Berge, and J. E. Kristjansson, 1989: Condensation and cloud parameterization studies with a mesoscale numerical weather prediction model. Mon. Wea. Rev., 117 , 1641–1657.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Tiedtke, M., 1989: A comprehensive mass flux scheme for cumulus parameterization in large-scale models. Mon. Wea. Rev., 117 , 1779–1800.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Tiedtke, M., . 1993: Representation of clouds in large-scale models. Mon. Wea. Rev., 121 , 3040–3061.

  • Tiedtke, M., . 1996: An extension of cloud-radiation parameterization in the ECMWF model: The representation of subgrid-scale variations of optical depth. Mon. Wea. Rev., 124 , 745–750.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Tompkins, A. M., 2001a: Organization of tropical convection in low vertical wind shears: The role of coldpools. J. Atmos. Sci., 58 , 1650–1672.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Tompkins, A. M., . 2001b: Organization of tropical convection in low vertical wind shears: The role of water vapor. J. Atmos. Sci., 58 , 529–545.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Tompkins, A. M., and G. C. Craig, 1998: Radiative-convective equilibrium in a three-dimensional cloud ensemble model. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 124 , 2073–2097.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Tompkins, A. M., and K. A. Emanuel, 2000: The vertical resolution sensitivity of simulated equilibrium temperature and water vapour profiles. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 126 , 1219–1238.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Walcek, C. J., 1994: Cloud cover and its relationship to relative-humidity during a springtime midlatitude cyclone. Mon. Wea. Rev., 122 , 1021–1035.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Wang, S., and Q. Wang, 1999: On condensation and evaporation in turbulence cloud parameterizations. J. Atmos. Sci., 56 , 3338–3344.

  • Wielicki, B. A., and L. Parker, 1994: Frequency distributions of cloud liquid water path in oceanic boundary layer cloud as a function of regional cloud fraction. Proc. Eighth Conf. on Atmospheric Radiation, Nashville, TN, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 415–417.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Wood, R., and P. R. Field, 2000: Relationship between total water, condensed water, and cloud fraction in stratiform clouds examined using aircraft data. J. Atmos. Sci., 57 , 1888–1905.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Xu, K-M., and S. K. Krueger, 1991: Evaluation of cloudiness parameterizations using a cumulus ensemble model. Mon. Wea. Rev., 119 , 342–367.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Xu, K-M., and D. A. Randall, 1996a: A semiempirical cloudiness parameterization for use in climate models. J. Atmos. Sci., 53 , 3084–3102.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Xu, K-M., . 1996b: Evaluation of statistically based cloudiness parameterizations used in climate models. J. Atmos. Sci., 53 , 3103–3119.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
All Time Past Year Past 30 Days
Abstract Views 0 0 0
Full Text Views 2600 1061 141
PDF Downloads 988 221 25