Editorial Type:
Article
Article Type:
Research Article

A New Globally Complete Monthly Historical Gridded Mean Sea Level Pressure Dataset (HadSLP2): 1850–2004

Rob Allan Hadley Centre, Met Office, Devon, United Kingdom

Search for other papers by Rob Allan in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
and
Tara Ansell Hadley Centre, Met Office, Devon, United Kingdom

Search for other papers by Tara Ansell in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
Print Publication:
15 Nov 2006
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI3937.1
Page(s):
5816–5842
Restricted access

Abstract

An upgraded version of the Hadley Centre’s monthly historical mean sea level pressure (MSLP) dataset (HadSLP2) is presented. HadSLP2 covers the period from 1850 to date, and is based on numerous terrestrial and marine data compilations. Each terrestrial pressure series used in HadSLP2 underwent a series of quality control tests, and erroneous or suspect values were either corrected, where possible, or removed. Marine observations from the International Comprehensive Ocean Atmosphere Data Set were quality controlled (assessed against climatology and near neighbors) and then gridded. The final gridded form of HadSLP2 was created by blending together the processed terrestrial and gridded marine MSLP data. MSLP fields were made spatially complete using reduced-space optimal interpolation. Gridpoint error estimates were also produced.

HadSLP2 was found to have generally stronger subtropical anticyclones and higher-latitude features across the Northern Hemisphere than an earlier product (HadSLP1). During the austral winter, however, it appears that the pressures in the southern Atlantic and Indian Ocean midlatitude regions are too high; this is seen in comparisons with both HadSLP1 and the 40-yr ECMWF Re-Analysis (ERA-40). Over regions of high altitude, HadSLP2 and ERA-40 showed consistent differences suggestive of potential biases in the reanalysis model, though the region over the Himalayas in HadSLP2 is biased compared with HadSLP1 and improvements are required in this region. Consistent differences were also observed in regions of sparse data, particularly over the higher latitudes of the Southern Ocean and in the southeastern Pacific. Unlike the earlier HadSLP1 product, error estimates are available with HadSLP2 to guide the user in these regions of low confidence.

An evaluation of major phenomena in the climate system using HadSLP2 provided further validation of the dataset. Important climatic features/indices such as the North Atlantic Oscillation, Arctic Oscillation, North Pacific index, Southern Oscillation index, Trans-Polar index, Antarctic Oscillation, Antarctic Circumpolar Wave, East Asian Summer Monsoon index, and the Siberian High index have all been resolved in HadSLP2, with extensions back to the mid-nineteenth century.

Corresponding author address: R. J. Allan, Hadley Centre, Met Office, FitzRoy Rd., Exeter, Devon EX1 3PB, United Kingdom. Email: rob.allan@metoffice.gov.uk

Abstract

An upgraded version of the Hadley Centre’s monthly historical mean sea level pressure (MSLP) dataset (HadSLP2) is presented. HadSLP2 covers the period from 1850 to date, and is based on numerous terrestrial and marine data compilations. Each terrestrial pressure series used in HadSLP2 underwent a series of quality control tests, and erroneous or suspect values were either corrected, where possible, or removed. Marine observations from the International Comprehensive Ocean Atmosphere Data Set were quality controlled (assessed against climatology and near neighbors) and then gridded. The final gridded form of HadSLP2 was created by blending together the processed terrestrial and gridded marine MSLP data. MSLP fields were made spatially complete using reduced-space optimal interpolation. Gridpoint error estimates were also produced.

HadSLP2 was found to have generally stronger subtropical anticyclones and higher-latitude features across the Northern Hemisphere than an earlier product (HadSLP1). During the austral winter, however, it appears that the pressures in the southern Atlantic and Indian Ocean midlatitude regions are too high; this is seen in comparisons with both HadSLP1 and the 40-yr ECMWF Re-Analysis (ERA-40). Over regions of high altitude, HadSLP2 and ERA-40 showed consistent differences suggestive of potential biases in the reanalysis model, though the region over the Himalayas in HadSLP2 is biased compared with HadSLP1 and improvements are required in this region. Consistent differences were also observed in regions of sparse data, particularly over the higher latitudes of the Southern Ocean and in the southeastern Pacific. Unlike the earlier HadSLP1 product, error estimates are available with HadSLP2 to guide the user in these regions of low confidence.

An evaluation of major phenomena in the climate system using HadSLP2 provided further validation of the dataset. Important climatic features/indices such as the North Atlantic Oscillation, Arctic Oscillation, North Pacific index, Southern Oscillation index, Trans-Polar index, Antarctic Oscillation, Antarctic Circumpolar Wave, East Asian Summer Monsoon index, and the Siberian High index have all been resolved in HadSLP2, with extensions back to the mid-nineteenth century.

Corresponding author address: R. J. Allan, Hadley Centre, Met Office, FitzRoy Rd., Exeter, Devon EX1 3PB, United Kingdom. Email: rob.allan@metoffice.gov.uk

Save
Cover Journal of Climate
Journal of Climate

  • Abbot, H. L., 1899a: Climatology of the Isthmus of Panama, including the temperature, winds, barometric pressure, and precipitation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 27 , 198–203.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Abbot, H. L., 1899b: Climatology of the Isthmus of Panama. Mon. Wea. Rev., 27 , 302–303.

  • Abbot, H. L., 1899c: Meteorology of Panama. Mon. Wea. Rev., 27 , 463.

  • Abbot, H. L., 1900: Contributions to the meteorology of Panama. Mon. Wea. Rev., 28 , 7–8.

  • Abbot, H. L., 1903: Mean barometric pressure at sea level on the American Isthmus. Mon. Wea. Rev., 31 , 124–125.

  • Abbot, H. L., 1904: Hourly climatic records on the Isthmus of Panama. Mon. Wea. Rev., 32 , 267–272.

  • Afifi, A. A., and S. P. Azen, 1979: Statistical Analysis: A Computer Oriented Approach. 2d ed. Academic Press, 442 pp.

  • AMMO, 1917–1957: Reseau Mondial: Monthly and Annual Summaries of Pressure, Temperature, and Precipitation Based on a World-Wide Network of Observing Stations, 1910–1934. HMSO.

  • AMMO, 1957–1980: Extracts from Climatological Returns for M.E.A.F. Stations: Extracts of Sums and Means for M.E.A.F. Stations, 1957–1977. Met Office.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Alexander, W. H., 1899: Climatology of St. Kitts. Mon. Wea. Rev., 27 , 583–587.

  • Alexander, W. H., 1900: Climatology of St. Kitts. W.I. Mon. Wea. Rev., 28 , 330–333.

  • Alexander, W. H., 1901: Climatology of St. Kitts. Comparison of barometers. Mon. Wea. Rev., 29 , 257–258.

  • Allan, R. J., N. Nicholls, P. D. Jones, and I. J. Butterworth, 1991: A further extension of the Tahiti-Darwin SOI, early ENSO events and Darwin pressure. J. Climate, 4 , 743–749.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Allan, R. J., J. A. Lindesay, and D. E. Parker, 1996: El Nino Southern Oscillation and Climatic Variability. CSIRO Publishing, 405 pp.

  • Allan, R. J., C. J. C. Reason, P. Carroll, and P. D. Jones, 2002: A reconstruction of Madras (Chennai) mean sea level pressure using instrumental records from the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Int. J. Climatol., 22 , 1119–1142.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Angot, A., 1906: Pression Atmospherique. Part 1, Etudes Sur le Climat de la France. Annales du Bureau Central Meteorologique de France, 83 pp.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ansell, T., and Coauthors, 2006: Daily mean sea level pressure reconstructions for the European–North Atlantic region for the period 1850–2003. J. Climate, 19 , 2717–2742.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Barnett, T. P., and P. D. Jones, 1992: Intercomparison of two different Southern Hemisphere sea level pressure data sets. J. Climate, 5 , 93–99.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Barnett, V., and T. Lewis, 1994: Outliers in Statistical Data. 3d ed. J. Wiley and Sons, 604 pp.

  • Barnston, A. G., and R. E. Livezey, 1987: Classification, seasonality and persistence of low-frequency atmospheric circulation patterns. Mon. Wea. Rev., 115 , 1083–1126.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Basnett, T., and D. E. Parker, 1997: Development of the Global Mean Sea Level Pressure Data Set GMSLP2. Hadley Centre, Met Office Tech. Rep. CRTN 79, 16 pp.

  • Beamish, R. J., C. E. Neville, and A. J. Cass, 1997: Production of Fraser River sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) in relation to decadal-scale changes in the climate and the ocean. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 54 , 543–554.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Berlage Jr., H. P., 1939: Observations Made at Secondary Stations in Netherlands East-India. Vol. XXI, Royal Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory at Batavia, 77 pp.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Berlage Jr., H. P., 1940: Observations Made at Secondary Stations in Netherlands East-India. Vol. XXII, Royal Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory at Batavia, 78 pp.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Berlage Jr., H. P., 1941: Observations Made at Secondary Stations in Netherlands East-India. Vol. XXIII, Royal Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory at Batavia, 80 pp.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Berlage Jr., H. P., 1943: Observations Made at Secondary Stations in the Netherlands Indies. Vol. XXV, Royal Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory, 37 pp.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Berlage Jr., H. P., 1957: Fluctuations of the general atmospheric circulation of more than one year, their nature and prognostic value. Mededlingen en Verhandelingen, No. 69, KNMI, 152 pp.

  • Berlage Jr., H. P., 1966: The Southern Oscillation and world weather. Mededlingen en Verhandelingen, No. 88, KNMI, 152 pp.

  • Board of Trade, 1861: Observations at Natal, Japan, Tahiti, Teneriffe, and the Orkneys. HMSO Meteorological Papers (Board of Trade), No. 5, 99 pp.

  • Board of Trade, 1863: Miscellaneous Papers: Meteorological observations at Bermuda, 1853-4; Halifax, 1854-5; Ascension, 1854-5; Valparaiso, 1853-5; Ceylon-Point de Galle, 1854, Trincomalee, 1854, Colombo, 1854; Notice of a typhoon, 1855; Deep-sea temperatures, 1854; Directions for observers; Meteorology of Isthmus of Darien and Cartagena; Remarks on the barometer and other instruments useful at sea, with notes on weather. HMSO Meteorological Papers (Board of Trade), No. 1, 2d ed, 84 pp.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Boerema, J., 1939: Observations Made at Secondary Stations in the Netherlands Indies. Vol. VIII, A, Royal Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory at Batavia, 88 pp.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Boerema, J., 1941: Observations Made at Secondary Stations in the Netherlands Indies. Vol. XIX, A, Royal Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory at Batavia, 88 pp.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Boletin Meteorologico Diario, 1871–1929: Spanish Daily Weather Records: Sept 1871–Dec 1879, Jan 1886–Jun 1888, Mar 1893–1929. Met Office.

  • Buchan, A., 1867: The mean pressure of the atmosphere and the prevailing winds over the globe for the months and for the year, Part 1. January, July. Year. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., 6 , 303–307.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Buchan, A., 1869: The mean pressure of the atmosphere and the prevailing winds over the globe for the months and for the year, Part 2. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., 25 , 575–637.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Buchan, A., 1911: Part V. Report on atmospheric circulation, based on the observations made on board H.M.S. Challenger during the years 1873–1876 and other meteorological observations. Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger during the Years 1873–76. Physics and Chemistry, Vol. 2, C. W. Thomson and J. Murray, Eds., Challenger Office, 774 pp.

  • Bureau Central Meteorologique, 1869–1881: Bulletin International, Annee, Jan 1–Dec 31, Paris, France. Vols. XIII–XXV.

  • Bureau Central Meteorologique, 1880–1913: Annales.

  • Bureau Central Meteorologique, 1926: Tables generales. 1878–1914. Annales.

  • Bureau of Meteorology, 1945–1953: Meteorological Summary for Selected Climatological Stations. Australia. Government Printer.

  • Bureau of Meteorology, 1954–1956: Monthly Climatological Records. Government Printer.

  • Cairo Survey Department, 1915: 1906–1913, 1914, 1915 charts. Summary of the Weather in Egypt, the Sudan and the Summarising Region.

  • Cairo Survey Department, Public Works Department, 1902–1905: Meteorological Observations at. [numerous locations in Egypt] and Summary of the Meteorological Observation made in Egypt and the Sudan..

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Camuffo, D., and P. Jones, 2002: Improved Understanding of Past Climatic Variability from Early Daily European Instrumental Sources. Kluwer Academic, 392 pp.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Central Meteorological Observatory, 1954: Climatic Records of Japan and the Far East Area: Air Pressure, Air Temperature, Amount of Precipitation. 679 pp.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Clayton, H. H., 1927: World Weather Records to 1920. Vol. 79, Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Smithsonian Institution, 1199 pp.

  • Clayton, H. H., 1934: World Weather Records 1921–1930. Vol. 90, Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Smithsonian Institution, 616 pp.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Clayton, H. H., 1947: World Weather Records 1921–1930. Vol. 105, Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Smithsonian Institution, 646 pp.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Collen, B., 1992: South Pacific Historical Climate Network, Climate Station Histories, Part 1: Southwest Pacific Region. New Zealand Meteorological Service, 113 pp.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Constantinople Observatoire Imperial, 1870–1874: Bulletin de l’Observatoire Imperial Meteorologique de Constantinople, 1869–1874.

  • Constantinople Observatoire Imperial Meteorologique, 1889–1897: Bulletin meteorologique 1889. Mars–Decembre; 1891, 1892; 1893, Feb. Dec., 1894, 1895, 1896–97.

  • Cooke, W. E., 1901: Climate of Western Australia from Observations Made during the Years 1876–1899. Government Printer, 35 pp.

  • Dai, A., and J. Wang, 1999: Diurnal and semidiurnal tides in global surface pressure fields. J. Atmos. Sci., 56 , 3874–3891.

  • Dakar, Afrique Occidentale Francaise Service Meteorologique, 1959: Reseau Mondial: Afrique Occidentale Francaise, 1935-1949.

  • D’Arrigo, R. D., G. Jacoby, R. Wilson, and F. Panagiotopoulos, 2005: A reconstructed Siberian High index since A.D. 1599 from Eurasian and North American tree rings. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32 .L05705, doi:10.1029/2004GL022271.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Department of Meteorological Services, 1952: Climatological Tables for the Period July, 1931 to June, 1951. Supplement 1, Southern Rhodesia Climate Handbook, Government Printing and Stationary Department, 158 pp.

  • de Tillo, A., 1890: Reparition Geographique de la Pression Atmospherique sur le Territoire de L’Empire de Russie, 1836-1885. La Societe Imperiale Russie de Geographie, 308 pp.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Deutsche Seewarte, 1887–1922: Deutsche Ueberseeische Meteorologische Beobachtungen. 22 Vols.

  • Dorpat (Jourieff) Imperial University, 1916: 50 Years Meteorological Observations. 110 pp.

  • Eliot, J., 1903: Monthly means of air-pressure reduced to 32deg F. and constant gravity, Lat.45 deg. Indian Meteorological Memoirs, Vol. XVI, No. I, Indian Meteorological Department, 1–184.

  • Ellery, R. L. J., 1873–1891: Monthly Record of Results of Observations in Meteorology, Terrestrial Magnetism, etc., etc., Taken at the Melbourne Observatory. Government Printer.

  • Fouhy, E., L. Coutts, R. McGann, B. Collen, and J. Salinger, 1992: South Pacific Historical Climate Network, Climate Station Histories, Part 2: New Zealand and Offshore Islands. New Zealand Meteorological Service, Wellington, 216 pp.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Gillett, N. P., R. J. Allan, and T. J. Ansell, 2005: Detection of external influence on sea level pressure with a multi-model ensemble. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32 .L19714, doi:10.1029/2005GL023640.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Glaisher, J., 1850: On the meteorology of England and the south of Scotland during the quarter ending September 30, 1850. Edinburgh Dublin Philos. Mag. J. Sci., September. 1–14.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Glaisher, J., 1851: On the meteorology of England and the south of Scotland during the quarter ending December 31, 1850. Philos. Mag. London, February. 1–17.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Glaisher, J., 1851–1877: On the Meteorology of England, South of Scotland and Parts of Ireland [quarterly tables]. Vol. 1: 1851–1862, Vol. 2: 1863–1877, HMSO.

  • Glaisher, J., 1858: On the meteorology of Scotland during the quarter ending December 31, 1857 (Also for June 1856 to Sept. 1857). Quarterly Return of Marriages, etc., London, United Kingdom.

  • Glaisher, J., 1901: Meteorology of England. Meteorological Record, Vols. 5–21 (for quarter ending Dec 1885–Dec 1901), Royal Meteorological Society.

  • Glaisher, J., 1902: Remarks on the weather during the quarters ending June, 1856 to March, 1902. On the Meteorology of England, Vols. 8–11, Quarterly Return of Marriages, etc., London, United Kingdom.

  • Gorczynski, W., 1917: Pression Atmospherique en Pologne et en Europe. (in Polish and French). Jan Cotty, 265 pp.

  • Government Meteorological Observer, 1885: Reports of the Government Meteorological Observer Queensland for the Years 1868-1884..

  • Greely, A. W., 1890: Summaries of International Meteorological Observations July to December 1888. Office of the Chief Signal Officer.

  • Griffiths, J. F., and T. C. Peterson, cited. 1997: Hardcopy sources of surface climatic data. Part I: Colonial Africa NCDC, NOAA. [Available online at http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/research/ghcn/africa.html.].

  • Griffiths, R. F., 1910: Meteorological Observations Made at the Adelaide Observatory during the Year 1907. Government Printer, 250 pp.

  • Guo, Q. Y., J. Cai, X. Shao, and W. Sha, 2004: A study of variations of East-Asian Summer Monsoon during 1873-2000. Chinese J. Atmos. Sci., 28 , 218–228.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hann, J., 1887: Die Vertheilung des Luftdruckes uber Mittel und Sud-Europa. Eduard Holzel, 220 pp.

  • Heidke, P., 1913: Meteorologische Beobachtungen aus Deutsch-Ostafrika. Zusammenstellungen von Monats- und Jahresmitteln aus den Jahren 1899 bis 1902, 1903 und 1904, 1905 und 1906, 1907 und 1908, 1909, 1910, 1911. Mitt. D. Schutzgeb.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Henry, A. J., 1900: Meteorological observations at Eagle, Alaska. Mon. Wea. Rev., 28 , 390–391.

  • Henry, A. J., 1925: Meteorological data for Midway Island, North Pacific Ocean. Mon. Wea. Rev., 53 , 357.

  • Hickey, K., P. Dunlop, K. Hoare, and F. Gaffney, 2003: Weather Diary 1861–1966 and Daily, Monthly, Seasonal and Annual Pressure 1861–1920. Vol. 1, Meteorological Data Recorded at National University of Ireland, Galway, Department of Geography, National University of Ireland, 81 pp.

  • Hildebrandsson, H. H., 1897: Quelques recherches sur les centres d’action de l’atmosphere. I-IV. Kungliga Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademiens Handlingar, Vol. 29, No. 3, 36 pp.

  • Hunt, H. A., 1910–1913: Australian Monthly Weather Report and Meteorological Abstract. Vols. 1–4, Government Printer.

  • Hunt, H. A., 1911: Results of Rainfall Observations Made in Victoria during 1840–1910. Commonwealth Government Printer, 55 pp.

  • Hunt, H. A., 1914: Results of Rainfall Observations Made in Queensland. Commonwealth Government Printer, 285 pp.

  • Hunt, H. A., 1916: Results of Rainfall Observations Made in New South Wales during 1909–1914. Commonwealth Government Printer, 224 pp.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hunt, H. A., 1918: Results of Rainfall Observations Made in South Australia and the Northern Territory. Commonwealth Government Printer, 421 pp.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hunt, H. A., 1929: Results of Rainfall Observations Made in Western Australia. Commonwealth Government Printer, 387 pp.

  • Hurrell, J. W., 1995: Decadal trends in the North Atlantic Oscillation: Regional temperatures and precipitation. Science, 269 , 676–679.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hurrell, J. W., 2003: Climate variability: North Atlantic and Arctic Oscillation. Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences, J. Holton, J. Pyle, and J. Curry, Eds., Academic Press, 439–445.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hurrell, J. W., Y. Kushnir, M. Visbeck, and G. Ottersen, 2003: The North Atlantic Oscillation: Climate Significance and Environmental Impact, Geophysical Monograph Series, Vol. 134, 35 pp.

  • Indian Meteorological Department, 1875–1890: Report on the Meteorology of India. Meteorological Office, Delhi.

  • Indian Meteorological Department, 1891–1922: India Weather Review. Meteorological Office, Delhi.

  • Indian Meteorological Department, 1923–1950: Monthly Weather Report. Meteorological Office, Delhi.

  • Ingleby, N. B., 2001: Comments on “A statistical determination of the random observational errors present in voluntary observing ships’ meteorological reports.”. J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 18 , 1102–1107.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jackson, M., 1986: Operational superfiles. Met Office 13 Tech. Note 25, 41 pp.

  • Jones, J. M., and M. Widmann, 2003: Instrument- and tree-ring-based estimates of the Antarctic Oscillation. J. Climate, 16 , 3511–3524.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jones, P. D., 1991: Southern Hemisphere sea-level pressure data: An analysis and reconstructions back to 1951 and 1911. Int. J. Climatol., 11 , 585–607.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jones, P. D., and D. W. S. Limbert, 1987: A data bank of Antarctic surface temperature and pressure data U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Research, Carbon Dioxide Research Division, Tech. Rep. 038, 52 pp.

  • Jones, P. D., and T. M. L. Wigley, 1988: Antarctic gridded sea level pressure data: An analysis and reconstruction back to 1957. J. Climate, 1 , 1199–1220.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jones, P. D., and P. A. Reid, 2001: A databank of Antarctic surface temperature and pressure data. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, ORNL/CDIAC-27, NDP-032.

  • Jones, P. D., M. J. Salinger, and A. B. Mullan, 1999a: Extratropical circulation indices in the Southern Hemisphere based on station data. Int. J. Climatol., 19 , 1301–1317.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jones, P. D., and Coauthors, 1999b: Monthly mean pressure reconstructions for Europe for the 1780-1995 period. Int. J. Climatol., 19 , 347–364.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kalnay, E., and Coauthors, 1996: The NCEP/NCAR 40-Year Reanalysis Project. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 77 , 437–471.

  • Kaplan, A., Y. Kushnir, M. Cane, and M. Blumenthal, 1997: Reduced space optimal analysis for historical data sets: 136 years of Atlantic sea surface temperatures. J. Geophys. Res., 102 , 27835–27860.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kaplan, A., Y. Kushnir, and M. A. Cane, 2000: Reduced space optimal interpolation of historical marine sea level pressure: 1854–1992. J. Climate, 13 , 2987–3002.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kent, E. C., P. G. Challenor, and P. K. Taylor, 1999: A statistical determination of the random observational errors present in voluntary observing ships meteorological reports. J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 16 , 905–914.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kimball, H. H., 1901: The seasonal variations in the climate of Antigua, W.I. Mon. Wea. Rev., 29 , 168–173.

  • Kistler, R., and Coauthors, 2001: The NCEP–NCAR 50-Year Reanalysis: Monthly means CD-ROM and documentation. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 82 , 247–267.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Koninklijk Nederlands Meteorologisch Instituut, 1854–1864: Meteorologische Waarmemingen in Nederland en Zijne Bezittingen en Afwijkingen van Temperatuur en Barometerstand op Vele Plaatien in Europa 1849–1851, 1854–64. Kemink & Zoon.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Koninklijk Nederlands Meteorologisch Instituut, 1866–1894: Nederlandsch Meteorologische Jaarboek: 1865–1893. Kemink & Zoon.

  • Koninklijk Nederlands Meteorologisch Instituut, 1871: Nederlandsch Meteorologisch Jaarboek voor 1870. Kemink & Zoon, 107 pp.

  • Koninklijk Nederlands Meteorologisch Instituut, 1877: Nederlandsch Meteorologisch Jaarboek voor 1872. Kemink & Zoon, 130 pp.

  • Konnen, G. P., M. Zaiki, A. P. M. Baede, T. Mikami, P. D. Jones, and T. Tsukuhara, 2003: Pre-1872 extension of the Japanese instrumental meteorological observation series back to 1819. J. Climate, 16 , 118–131.