Abstract
It is well documented that the relationship between the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the Indian summer monsoon changes on interdecadal time scales, yet an explanation for the variations is still a subject of debate. Here, using a continuum framework based on one-point partial correlation maps, we show that the ENSO–Indian rainfall relationship is influenced by the gradient of sea surface temperature anomalies (SSTA) across the Niño-3 region. Based on this identified SSTA pattern, a simple trans-Niño-3 (TN3) index is created that explains up to 50% of all-India rainfall variability during the mid- to late monsoon season after the 1960s. It is also shown that the influence of the TN3 pattern on the relationship between common ENSO metrics and all-India rainfall is strongest during the August–September (AS) monsoon subseason and weakest during the June–July subseason. The TN3 pattern accounts for up to 80% of the change and sign reversal in the AS Niño-1+2–all-India rainfall relationship in recent decades. The 1940s coincides with the intensification of the TN3 pattern and its influence. As the TN3 index is nearly orthogonal to the Niño-3 index, and both are strongly correlated with all-India rainfall, the strengthening TN3 influence must be systematically associated with the weakening Niño-3–all-India relationship in recent decades. This work supports arguments that recent changes in the ENSO–Indian rainfall relationship are not solely related to noise.
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