Editorial Type:
Article
Article Type:
Research Article

On the Distribution of Convective and Stratiform Precipitation in Tropical Cyclones from Airborne Doppler Radar and Its Relationship to Intensity Change and Environmental Wind Shear Direction

Joshua B. Wadler aDepartment of Applied Aviation Sciences, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Daytona Beach, Florida

Search for other papers by Joshua B. Wadler in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0430-9246
,
Joseph J. Cione bNOAA/Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory/Hurricane Research Division, Miami, Florida

Search for other papers by Joseph J. Cione in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
,
Robert F. Rogers bNOAA/Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory/Hurricane Research Division, Miami, Florida

Search for other papers by Robert F. Rogers in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
, and
Michael S. Fischer bNOAA/Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory/Hurricane Research Division, Miami, Florida
cCooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Studies, University of Miami, Miami, Florida

Search for other papers by Michael S. Fischer in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
Online Publication:
12 Dec 2023
Print Publication:
01 Dec 2023
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-23-0048.1
Page(s):
3209–3233
Restricted access

Abstract

Airborne Doppler radar reflectivity data collected in hurricanes on the NOAA P-3 aircraft between 1997 and 2021 were parsed into different modes of precipitation: stratiform precipitation, shallow convection, moderate convection, and deep convection. Stratiform precipitation was the most frequent precipitation mode with 82.6% of all observed precipitation while deep convection was the most infrequent at 1.3%. When stratified by 12-h intensity change, intensifying TCs had a greater areal coverage of total convection in the eyewall compared to weakening and steady-state TCs. The largest difference in the azimuthal distributions in the precipitation modes was in deep convection, which was mostly confined to the downshear-left quadrant in weakening and steady-state hurricanes and more symmetrically distributed in intensifying hurricanes. For all intensity change categories, the most symmetrically distributed precipitation mode was stratiform rain. To build upon the results of a recent thermodynamic study, the precipitation data were recategorized for hurricanes experiencing deep-layer wind shear with either a northerly component or southerly component. Like intensifying storms, hurricanes that experienced northerly component shear had a more symmetric distribution of deep convection than southerly component shear storms, which had a distribution of deep convection that resembled weakening storms. The greatest difference in the precipitation distributions between the shear direction groups were in major hurricanes experiencing moderate (4.5–11 m s−1) wind shear values. Consistent with previous airborne radar studies, the results suggest that considering the distribution of deep convection and the thermodynamic distributions associated with differing environmental wind shear direction could aid TC intensity forecasts.

Significance Statement

This research investigates how the distribution of different types of precipitation are related to tropical cyclone (TC) intensity change. Even though deep convection—the tallest clouds—is the least frequent type of precipitation, it has the strongest relationship to intensity change with uniform distributions around the eyewall associated with intensification. Less significant relationships were noticed for shallower clouds and stratiform (lighter) rain. The study also analyzed how change in direction of the large-scale winds with height (wind shear) influences intensity change. When wind shear is northerly, there is a more symmetric distribution of deep convection compared to when wind shear is southerly. These relationships illustrate how wind shear direction influences TC convective structure and, in turn, TC intensity change.

© 2023 American Meteorological Society. This published article is licensed under the terms of the default AMS reuse license. For information regarding reuse of this content and general copyright information, consult the AMS Copyright Policy (www.ametsoc.org/PUBSReuseLicenses).

Corresponding author: Joshua B. Wadler, wadlerj@erau.edu

Abstract

Airborne Doppler radar reflectivity data collected in hurricanes on the NOAA P-3 aircraft between 1997 and 2021 were parsed into different modes of precipitation: stratiform precipitation, shallow convection, moderate convection, and deep convection. Stratiform precipitation was the most frequent precipitation mode with 82.6% of all observed precipitation while deep convection was the most infrequent at 1.3%. When stratified by 12-h intensity change, intensifying TCs had a greater areal coverage of total convection in the eyewall compared to weakening and steady-state TCs. The largest difference in the azimuthal distributions in the precipitation modes was in deep convection, which was mostly confined to the downshear-left quadrant in weakening and steady-state hurricanes and more symmetrically distributed in intensifying hurricanes. For all intensity change categories, the most symmetrically distributed precipitation mode was stratiform rain. To build upon the results of a recent thermodynamic study, the precipitation data were recategorized for hurricanes experiencing deep-layer wind shear with either a northerly component or southerly component. Like intensifying storms, hurricanes that experienced northerly component shear had a more symmetric distribution of deep convection than southerly component shear storms, which had a distribution of deep convection that resembled weakening storms. The greatest difference in the precipitation distributions between the shear direction groups were in major hurricanes experiencing moderate (4.5–11 m s−1) wind shear values. Consistent with previous airborne radar studies, the results suggest that considering the distribution of deep convection and the thermodynamic distributions associated with differing environmental wind shear direction could aid TC intensity forecasts.

Significance Statement

This research investigates how the distribution of different types of precipitation are related to tropical cyclone (TC) intensity change. Even though deep convection—the tallest clouds—is the least frequent type of precipitation, it has the strongest relationship to intensity change with uniform distributions around the eyewall associated with intensification. Less significant relationships were noticed for shallower clouds and stratiform (lighter) rain. The study also analyzed how change in direction of the large-scale winds with height (wind shear) influences intensity change. When wind shear is northerly, there is a more symmetric distribution of deep convection compared to when wind shear is southerly. These relationships illustrate how wind shear direction influences TC convective structure and, in turn, TC intensity change.

© 2023 American Meteorological Society. This published article is licensed under the terms of the default AMS reuse license. For information regarding reuse of this content and general copyright information, consult the AMS Copyright Policy (www.ametsoc.org/PUBSReuseLicenses).

Corresponding author: Joshua B. Wadler, wadlerj@erau.edu
Save
Cover Monthly Weather Review
Monthly Weather Review

  • Alland, J. J., B. H. Tang, and K. L. Corbosiero, 2017: Effects of midlevel dry air on development of the axisymmetric tropical cyclone secondary circulation. J. Atmos. Sci., 74, 1455–1470, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-16-0271.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Alland, J. J., B. H. Tang, K. L. Corbosiero, and G. H. Bryan, 2021a: Synergistic effects of midlevel dry air and vertical wind shear on tropical cyclone development. Part I: Downdraft ventilation. J. Atmos. Sci., 78, 763–782, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-20-0054.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Alland, J. J., B. H. Tang, K. L. Corbosiero, and G. H. Bryan, 2021b: Combined effects of midlevel dry air and vertical wind shear on tropical cyclone development. Part II: Radial ventilation. J. Atmos. Sci., 78, 783–796, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-20-0055.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Alvey, G. R., III, J. Zawislak, and E. Zipser, 2015: Precipitation properties observed during tropical cyclone intensity change. Mon. Wea. Rev., 143, 4476–4492, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-15-0065.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Alvey, G. R., III, E. Zipser, and J. Zawislak, 2020: How does Hurricane Edouard (2014) evolve toward symmetry before rapid intensification? A high-resolution ensemble study. J. Atmos. Sci., 77, 1329–1351, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-18-0355.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Alvey, G. R., III, M. Fischer, P. Reasor, R. Rogers, and J. Zawislak, 2022: Observed processes underlying the favorable vortex repositioning early in the development of Hurricane Dorian (2019). Mon. Wea. Rev., 150, 193–213, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-21-0069.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bell, M. M., and M. T. Montgomery, 2019: Mesoscale processes during the genesis of Hurricane Karl (2010). J. Atmos. Sci., 76, 2235–2255, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-18-0161.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bhatia, K. T., and D. S. Nolan, 2013: Relating the skill of tropical cyclone intensity forecasts to the synoptic environment. Wea. Forecasting, 28, 961–980, https://doi.org/10.1175/WAF-D-12-00110.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Black, M. L., R. W. Burpee, and F. D. Marks Jr., 1996: Vertical motion characteristics of tropical cyclones determined with airborne Doppler radial velocities. J. Atmos. Sci., 53, 1887–1909, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1996)053<1887:VMCOTC>2.0.CO;2.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Black, M. L., J. F. Gamache, F. D. Marks Jr., C. E. Samsury, and H. E. Willoughby, 2002: Eastern Pacific Hurricanes Jimena of 1991 and Olivia of 1994: The effect of vertical shear on structure and intensity. Mon. Wea. Rev., 130, 2291–2312, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<2291:EPHJOA>2.0.CO;2.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Boehm, A. M., and M. M. Bell, 2021: Retrieved thermodynamic structure of Hurricane Rita (2005) from airborne multi–Doppler radar data. J. Atmos. Sci., 78, 1583–1605, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-20-0195.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Braun, S. A., 2002: A cloud-resolving simulation of Hurricane Bob (1991): Storm structure and eyewall buoyancy. Mon. Wea. Rev., 130, 1573–1592, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<1573:ACRSOH>2.0.CO;2.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cangialosi, J. P., E. Blake, M. DeMaria, A. Penny, A. Latto, E. Rappaport, and V. Tallapragada, 2020: Recent progress in tropical cyclone intensity forecasting at the National Hurricane Center. Wea. Forecasting, 35, 1913–1922, https://doi.org/10.1175/WAF-D-20-0059.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Chen, B.-F., C. A. Davis, and Y.-H. Kuo, 2018: Effects of low-level flow orientation and vertical shear on the structure and intensity of tropical cyclones. Mon. Wea. Rev., 146, 2447–2467, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-17-0379.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Chen, B.-F., C. A. Davis, and Y.-H. Kuo, 2019: An idealized numerical study of shear-relative low-level mean flow on tropical cyclone intensity and size. J. Atmos. Sci., 76, 2309–2334, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-18-0315.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Chen, H., and D.-L. Zhang, 2013: On the rapid intensification of Hurricane Wilma (2005). Part II: Convective bursts and the upper-level warm core. J. Atmos. Sci., 70, 146–162, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-12-062.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Chen, H., and S. G. Gopalakrishnan, 2015: A study on the asymmetric rapid intensification of Hurricane Earl (2010) using the HWRF system. J. Atmos. Sci., 72, 531–550, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-14-0097.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Chen, X., J. A. Zhang, and F. D. Marks, 2019: A thermodynamic pathway leading to rapid intensification of tropical cyclones in shear. Geophys. Res. Lett., 46, 9241–9251, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL083667.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Chen, X., J.-F. Gu, J. A. Zhang, F. D. Marks, R. F. Rogers, and J. J. Cione, 2021: Boundary layer recovery and precipitation symmetrization preceding rapid intensification of tropical cyclones under shear. J. Atmos. Sci., 78, 1523–1544, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-20-0252.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Churchill, D. D., and R. A. Houze Jr., 1984: Development and structure of winter monsoon cloud clusters on 10 December 1978. J. Atmos. Sci., 41, 933–960, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<0933:DASOWM>2.0.CO;2.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cione, J. J., and E. W. Uhlhorn, 2003: Sea surface temperature variability in hurricanes: Implications with respect to intensity change. Mon. Wea. Rev., 131, 1783–1796, https://doi.org/10.1175//2562.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cione, J. J., P. G. Black, and S. H. Houston, 2000: Surface observations in the hurricane environment. Mon. Wea. Rev., 128, 1550–1561, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(2000)128<1550:SOITHE>2.0.CO;2.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Cione, J. J., E. A. Kalina, J. A. Zhang, and E. W. Uhlhorn, 2013: Observations of air–sea interaction and intensity change in hurricanes. Mon. Wea. Rev., 141, 2368–2382, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-12-00070.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Corbosiero, K. L., and J. Molinari, 2003: The relationship between storm motion, vertical wind shear, and convective asymmetries in tropical cyclones. J. Atmos. Sci., 60, 366–376, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0366:TRBSMV>2.0.CO;2.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Dai, Y., S. J. Majumdar, and D. S. Nolan, 2021: Tropical cyclone resistance to strong environmental shear. J. Atmos. Sci., 78, 1275–1293, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-20-0231.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Davis, C. A., and D. A. Ahijevych, 2012: Mesoscale structural evolution of three tropical weather systems observed during PREDICT. J. Atmos. Sci., 69, 1284–1305, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-11-0225.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • DeHart, J. C., R. A. Houze Jr., and R. F. Rogers, 2014: Quadrant distribution of tropical cyclone inner-core kinematics in relation to environmental shear. J. Atmos. Sci., 71, 2713–2732, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-13-0298.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • DeMaria, M., M. Mainelli, L. K. Shay, J. A. Knaff, and J. Kaplan, 2005: Further improvements in the Statistical Hurricane Intensity Prediction Scheme (SHIPS). Wea. Forecasting, 20, 531–543, https://doi.org/10.1175/WAF862.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • DeMaria, M., C. R. Sampson, J. A. Knaff, and K. D. Musgrave, 2014: Is tropical cyclone intensity guidance improving? Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 95, 387–398, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00240.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Didlake, A. C., Jr., and R. A. Houze Jr., 2009: Convective-scale downdrafts in the principal rainband of Hurricane Katrina (2005). Mon. Wea. Rev., 137, 3269–3293, https://doi.org/10.1175/2009MWR2827.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Finocchio, P. M., and S. J. Majumdar, 2017: A statistical perspective on wind profiles and vertical wind shear in tropical cyclone environments of the Northern Hemisphere. Mon. Wea. Rev., 145, 361–378, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-16-0221.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Finocchio, P. M., S. J. Majumdar, D. S. Nolan, and M. Iskandarani, 2016: Idealized tropical cyclone responses to the height and depth of environmental vertical wind shear. Mon. Wea. Rev., 144, 2155–2175, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-15-0320.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Fischer, M. S., B. H. Tang, K. L. Corbosiero, and C. M. Rozoff, 2018: Normalized convective characteristics of tropical cyclone rapid intensification events in the North Atlantic and eastern North Pacific. Mon. Wea. Rev., 146, 1133–1155, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-17-0239.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Fischer, M. S., R. F. Rogers, and P. D. Reasor, 2020: The rapid intensification and eyewall replacement cycles of Hurricane Irma (2017). Mon. Wea. Rev., 148, 981–1004, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-19-0185.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Fischer, M. S., P. D. Reasor, R. F. Rogers, and J. F. Gamache, 2022: An analysis of tropical cyclone vortex and convective characteristics in relation to storm intensity using a novel airborne Doppler radar database. Mon. Wea. Rev., 150, 2255–2278, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-21-0223.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Fischer, M. S., P. D. Reasor, B. H. Tang, K. L. Corbosiero, R. D. Torn, and X. Chen, 2023: A tale of two vortex evolutions: Using a high-resolution ensemble to assess the impacts of ventilation on a tropical cyclone rapid intensification event. Mon. Wea. Rev., 151, 297–320, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-22-0037.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Foerster, A. M., M. M. Bell, P. A. Harr, and S. C. Jones, 2014: Observations of the eyewall structure of Typhoon Sinlaku (2008) during the transformation stage of extratropical transition. Mon. Wea. Rev., 142, 3372–3392, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-13-00313.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Gamache, J. F., 1997: Evaluation of a fully three-dimensional variational Doppler analysis technique. Preprints, 28th Conf. on Radar Meteorology, Austin, TX, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 422–423.

  • Gu, J.-F., Z.-M. Tan, and X. Qiu, 2019: Intensification variability of tropical cyclones in directional shear flows: Vortex tilt–convection coupling. J. Atmos. Sci., 76, 1827–1844, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-18-0282.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Harnos, D. S., and S. W. Nesbitt, 2016a: Varied pathways for simulated tropical cyclone rapid intensification. Part I: Precipitation and environment. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 142, 1816–1831, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.2780.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Harnos, D. S., and S. W. Nesbitt, 2016b: Varied pathways for simulated tropical cyclone rapid intensification. Part II: Vertical motion and cloud populations. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 142, 1832–1846, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.2778.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hazelton, A. T., and R. E. Hart, 2013: Hurricane eyewall slope as determined from airborne radar reflectivity data: Composites and case studies. Wea. Forecasting, 28, 368–386, https://doi.org/10.1175/WAF-D-12-00037.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hazelton, A. T., G. J. Alaka Jr., L. Cowan, M. Fischer, and S. Gopalakrishnan, 2021: Understanding the processes causing the early intensification of Hurricane Dorian through an ensemble of the Hurricane Analysis and Forecast System (HAFS). Atmosphere, 12, 93, https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12010093.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hence, D. A., and R. A. Houze Jr., 2008: Kinematic structure of convective-scale elements in the rainbands of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita (2005). J. Geophys. Res., 113, D15108, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JD009429.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Houze, R. A., Jr., F. D. Marks Jr., and R. A. Black, 1992: Dual-aircraft investigation of the inner core of Hurricane Norbert. Part II: Mesoscale distribution of ice particles. J. Atmos. Sci., 49, 943–963, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1992)049<0943:DAIOTI>2.0.CO;2.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jaimes de la Cruz, B., L. K. Shay, J. B. Wadler, and J. E. Rudzin, 2021: On the hyperbolicity of the bulk air–sea heat flux functions: Insights into the efficiency of air–sea moisture disequilibrium for tropical cyclone intensification. Mon. Wea. Rev., 149, 1517–1534, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-20-0324.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jiang, H., 2012: The relationship between tropical cyclone intensity change and the strength of inner-core convection. Mon. Wea. Rev., 140, 1164–1176, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-11-00134.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jiang, H., J. P. Zagrodnik, C. Tao, and E. J. Zipser, 2018: Classifying precipitation types in tropical cyclones using the NRL 37 GHz color product. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 123, 5509–5524, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JD028324.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jones, S. C., 1995: The evolution of vortices in vertical shear: Initially barotropic vortices. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 121, 821–851, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49712152406.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jorgensen, D. F., 1984: Mesoscale and convective-scale characteristics of mature hurricanes. Part I: General observations by research aircraft. J. Atmos. Sci., 41, 1268–1286, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041<1268:MACSCO>2.0.CO;2.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Jorgensen, D. F., E. J. Zipser, and M. A. LeMone, 1985: Vertical motions in intense hurricanes. J. Atmos. Sci., 42, 839–856, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<0839:VMIIH>2.0.CO;2.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kieper, M., and H. Jiang, 2012: Predicting tropical cyclone rapid intensification using the 37 GHz ring pattern identified from passive microwave measurements. Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L13804, https://doi.org/10.1029/2012GL052115.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Klotzbach, P. J., S. G. Bowen, R. Pielke Jr., and M. Bell, 2018: Continental U.S. hurricane landfall frequency and associated damage: Observations and future risks. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 99, 1359–1376, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-17-0184.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Leighton, H., S. Gopalakrishnan, J. A. Zhang, R. F. Rogers, Z. Zhang, and V. Tallapragada, 2018: Azimuthal distribution of deep convection, environmental factors, and tropical cyclone rapid intensification: A perspective from HWRF ensemble forecasts of Hurricane Edouard (2014). J. Atmos. Sci., 75, 275–295, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-17-0171.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Marks, F. D., Jr., and R. A. Houze Jr., 1987: Inner core structure of Hurricane Alicia from airborne Doppler radar observations. J. Atmos. Sci., 44, 1296–1317, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1987)044<1296:ICSOHA>2.0.CO;2.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Marks, F. D., Jr., and L. K. Shay, 1998: Landfalling tropical cyclones: Forecast problems and associated research opportunities. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 79, 305–323, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1998)079<0305:LTCFPA>2.0.CO;2.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Massey, F. J., Jr., 1951: The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for goodness of fit. J. Amer. Stat. Assoc., 46, 68–78, https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1951.10500769.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Molinari, J., and D. Vollaro, 2010: Rapid intensification of a sheared tropical storm. Mon. Wea. Rev., 138, 3869–3885, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010MWR3378.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Molinari, J., D. Vollaro, and K. L. Corbosiero, 2004: Tropical cyclone formation in a sheared environment: A case study. J. Atmos. Sci., 61, 2493–2509, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS3291.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Molinari, J., P. Dodge, D. Vollaro, K. L. Corbosiero, and F. Marks, Jr., 2006: Mesoscale aspects of the downshear reformation of a tropical cyclone. J. Atmos. Sci., 63, 341–354, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS3591.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Molinari, J., J. Frank, and D. Vollaro, 2013: Convective bursts, downdraft cooling, and boundary layer recovery in a sheared tropical storm. Mon. Wea. Rev., 141, 1048–1060, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-12-00135.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Montgomery, M. T., L. L. Lussier III, R. W. Moore, and Z. Wang, 2010: The genesis of Typhoon Nuri as observed during the Tropical Cyclone Structure 2008 (TCS-08) field experiment—Part 1: The role of the easterly wave critical layer. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 9879–9900, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-9879-2010.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Munsell, E. B., F. Zhang, J. A. Sippel, S. A. Braun, and Y. Weng, 2017: Dynamics and predictability of the intensification of Hurricane Edouard (2014). J. Atmos. Sci., 74, 573–595, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-16-0018.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Nam, C. C., and M. M. Bell, 2021: Multiscale shear impacts during the genesis of Hagupit (2008). Mon. Wea. Rev., 149, 551–569, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-20-0133.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Nguyen, L. T., R. F. Rogers, and P. D. Reasor, 2017: Thermodynamic and kinematic influences on precipitation symmetry in sheared tropical cyclones: Bertha and Cristobal (2014). Mon. Wea. Rev., 145, 4423–4446, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-17-0073.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Nguyen, L. T., R. F. Rogers, J. Zawislak, and J. A. Zhang, 2019: Assessing the influence of convective downdrafts and surface enthalpy fluxes on tropical cyclone intensity change in moderate vertical wind shear. Mon. Wea. Rev., 147, 3519–3534, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-18-0461.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Nolan, D. S., and L. D. Grasso, 2003: Nonhydrostatic, three-dimensional perturbations to balanced, hurricane-like vortices. Part II: Symmetric response and nonlinear simulations. J. Atmos. Sci., 60, 2717–2745, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<2717:NTPTBH>2.0.CO;2.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Nolan, D. S., and M. G. McGauley, 2012: Tropical cyclogenesis in wind shear: Climatological relationships and physical processes. Cyclones: Formation, Triggers, and Control, K. Oouchi and H. Fudeyasu, Eds., Nova Science Publishers, 1–36.

  • Nolan, D. S., Y. Moon, and D. P. Stern, 2007: Tropical cyclone intensification from asymmetric convection: Energetics and efficiency. J. Atmos. Sci., 64, 3377–3405, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS3988.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Onderlinde, M. J., and D. S. Nolan, 2014: Environmental helicity and its effects on development and intensification of tropical cyclones. J. Atmos. Sci., 71, 4308–4320, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-14-0085.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Onderlinde, M. J., and D. S. Nolan, 2016: Tropical cyclone–relative environmental helicity and the pathways to intensification in shear. J. Atmos. Sci., 73, 869–890, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-15-0261.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Pei, Y., and H. Jiang, 2018: Quantification of precipitation asymmetries of tropical cyclones using 16-yr TRMM observations. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 123, 8091–8114, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JD028545.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Pendergrass, A. G., and H. E. Willoughby, 2009: Diabatically induced secondary flows in tropical cyclones. Part I: Quasi-steady forcing. Mon. Wea. Rev., 137, 805–821, https://doi.org/10.1175/2008MWR2657.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Pielke, R. A., Jr., and C. W. Landsea, 1998: Normalized hurricane damages in the United States: 1925–95. Wea. Forecasting, 13, 621–631, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0434(1998)013<0621:NHDITU>2.0.CO;2.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Pielke, R. A., Jr., J. Gratz, C. W. Landsea, D. Collins, M. A. Saunders, and R. Muslin, 2008: Normalized hurricane damage in the United States: 1900–2005. Nat. Hazards Rev., 9, 29–42, https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1527-6988(2008)9:1(29).

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rappin, E. D., and D. S. Nolan, 2012: The effect of vertical shear orientation on tropical cyclogenesis. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 138, 1035–1054, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.977.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Reasor, P. D., and M. D. Eastin, 2012: Rapidly intensifying Hurricane Guillermo (1997). Part II: Resilience in shear. Mon. Wea. Rev., 140, 425–444, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-11-00080.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Reasor, P. D., M. D. Eastin, and J. F. Gamache, 2009: Rapidly intensifying Hurricane Guillermo (1997). Part I: Low-wavenumber structure and evolution. Mon. Wea. Rev., 137, 603–631, https://doi.org/10.1175/2008MWR2487.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Reasor, P. D., R. Rogers, and S. Lorsolo, 2013: Environmental flow impacts on tropical cyclone structure diagnosed from airborne Doppler radar composites. Mon. Wea. Rev., 141, 2949–2969, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-12-00334.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Reynolds, R. W., and D. C. Marsico, 1993: An improved real-time global sea surface temperature analysis. J. Climate, 6, 114–119, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1993)006<0114:AIRTGS>2.0.CO;2.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Riemer, M., 2016: Meso‐β‐scale environment for the stationary band complex of vertically sheared tropical cyclones. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 142, 2442–2451, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.2837.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Riemer, M., M. T. Montgomery, and M. E. Nicholls, 2010: A new paradigm for intensity modification of tropical cyclones: Thermodynamic impact of vertical wind shear on the inflow layer. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 3163–3188, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-3163-2010.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Riemer, M., M. T. Montgomery, and