Editorial Type:
Article
Article Type:
Research Article

A Quantitative Evaluation of the Multiple Narratives of the Recent Sahelian Regreening

Mimi Stith Department of Anthropology, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts

Search for other papers by Mimi Stith in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
,
Alessandra Giannini International Research Institute for Climate and Society, The Earth Institute, Columbia University, Palisades, New York

Search for other papers by Alessandra Giannini in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
,
John del Corral International Research Institute for Climate and Society, The Earth Institute, Columbia University, Palisades, New York

Search for other papers by John del Corral in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
,
Susana Adamo Center for International Earth Science Information Network, The Earth Institute, Columbia University, Palisades, New York

Search for other papers by Susana Adamo in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
, and
Alex de Sherbinin Center for International Earth Science Information Network, The Earth Institute, Columbia University, Palisades, New York

Search for other papers by Alex de Sherbinin in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
Print Publication:
01 Jan 2016
Collections:
Peter J. Lamb Special Collection: Climate Variability and Its Impacts, Ways of Knowing: Traditional Knowledge as Key Insight for Addressing Environmental Change
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1175/WCAS-D-15-0012.1
Page(s):
67–83
Restricted access

Abstract

A spatial analysis is presented that aims to synthesize the evidence for climate and social dimensions of the “regreening” of the Sahel. Using an independently constructed archival database of donor-funded interventions in Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, and Senegal in response to the persistence of drought in the 1970s and 1980s, the spatial distribution of these interventions is examined in relation to population density and to trends in precipitation and in greenness. Three categories of environmental change are classified: 1) regions at the northern grassland/shrubland edge of the Sahel where NDVI varies interannually with precipitation, 2) densely populated cropland regions of the Sahel where significant trends in precipitation and NDVI decouple at interannual time scales, and 3) regions at the southern savanna edge of the Sahel where NDVI variation is independent of precipitation. Examination of the spatial distribution of environmental change, number of development projects, and population density brings to the fore the second category, covering the cropland areas where population density and regreening are higher than average. While few, regions in this category coincide with emerging hotspots of regreening in northern Burkina Faso and southern central Niger known from case study literature. In examining the impact of efforts to rejuvenate the Sahelian environment and livelihoods in the aftermath of the droughts of the 1970s and 1980s against the backdrop of a varying and uncertain climate, the transition from desertification to regreening discourses is framed in the context of adaptation to climate change.

Supplemental information related to this paper is available at the Journals Online website: http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/WCAS-D-15-0012.s1.

Corresponding author address: Alessandra Giannini, International Research Institute for Climate and Society, The Earth Institute at Columbia University, 61 Route 9W, Palisades, NY 10964. E-mail: alesall@iri.columbia.edu

This article is included in the In Honor of Peter J. Lamb special collection.

Abstract

A spatial analysis is presented that aims to synthesize the evidence for climate and social dimensions of the “regreening” of the Sahel. Using an independently constructed archival database of donor-funded interventions in Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, and Senegal in response to the persistence of drought in the 1970s and 1980s, the spatial distribution of these interventions is examined in relation to population density and to trends in precipitation and in greenness. Three categories of environmental change are classified: 1) regions at the northern grassland/shrubland edge of the Sahel where NDVI varies interannually with precipitation, 2) densely populated cropland regions of the Sahel where significant trends in precipitation and NDVI decouple at interannual time scales, and 3) regions at the southern savanna edge of the Sahel where NDVI variation is independent of precipitation. Examination of the spatial distribution of environmental change, number of development projects, and population density brings to the fore the second category, covering the cropland areas where population density and regreening are higher than average. While few, regions in this category coincide with emerging hotspots of regreening in northern Burkina Faso and southern central Niger known from case study literature. In examining the impact of efforts to rejuvenate the Sahelian environment and livelihoods in the aftermath of the droughts of the 1970s and 1980s against the backdrop of a varying and uncertain climate, the transition from desertification to regreening discourses is framed in the context of adaptation to climate change.

Supplemental information related to this paper is available at the Journals Online website: http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/WCAS-D-15-0012.s1.

Corresponding author address: Alessandra Giannini, International Research Institute for Climate and Society, The Earth Institute at Columbia University, 61 Route 9W, Palisades, NY 10964. E-mail: alesall@iri.columbia.edu

This article is included in the In Honor of Peter J. Lamb special collection.

Supplementary Materials

    • Supplemental Materials (DOC 163.00 KB)
Save
Cover Weather, Climate, and Society
Weather, Climate, and Society

  • Adler, R. F., and Coauthors, 2003: The version-2 Global Precipitation Climatology Project (GPCP) monthly precipitation analysis (1979–present). J. Hydrometeor., 4, 1147–1167, doi:10.1175/1525-7541(2003)004<1147:TVGPCP>2.0.CO;2.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Agrhymet, 2010: Le Sahel face aux changements climatiques. Bulletin mensuel, Numéro Spécial, 42 pp.[Available online at http://www.agrhymet.ne/PDF/BM2010/specialChC.pdf.]

  • Alhassane, A., Salack S. , Ly M. , Lona I. , Traoré S. B. , and Sarr B. , 2013: Evolution des risques agroclimatiques associés aux tendances récentes du régime pluviometrique en Afrique de l’Ouest soudano-sahélienne. Secheresse, 24, 282–293, doi:10.1684/sec.2013.0400.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ali, A., and Lebel T. , 2009: The Sahelian standardized rainfall index revisited. Int. J. Climatol., 29, 1705–1714, doi:10.1002/joc.1832.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Anyamba, A., and Tucker C. J. , 2005: Analysis of Sahelian vegetation dynamics using NOAA-AVHRR NDVI data from 1981–2003. J. Arid Environ., 63, 596–614, doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2005.03.007.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Batterbury, S. P. J., 1998: Shifting sands: The Sahel. Geogr. Mag., 70 (5), 40–45.

  • Batterbury, S. P. J., and Warren A. , 2001: The African Sahel 25 years after the great drought: Assessing progress and moving towards new agendas and approaches. Global Environ. Change, 11, 1–8, doi:10.1016/S0959-3780(00)00040-6.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Batterbury, S. P. J., and Mortimore M. J. , 2013: Adapting to drought in the West African Sahel. Natural Disasters and Adaptation to Climate Change, S. Boulter et al., Eds., Cambridge University Press, 149–157.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Bayala, J., Sileshi G. W. , Coe R. , Kalinganire A. , Tchoundjeu Z. , Sinclair F. , and Garrity D. , 2012: Cereal yield response to conservation agriculture practices in drylands of West Africa: A quantitative synthesis. J. Arid Environ., 78, 13–25, doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2011.10.011.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Biasutti, M., and Giannini A. , 2006: Robust Sahel drying in response to late 20th century forcings. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L11706, doi:10.1029/2006GL026067.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Boserup, E., 1965: The Conditions of Agricultural Growth: The Economics of Agrarian Change under Population Pressure. Allen and Unwin, 124 pp.

  • Botoni, E., and Reij C. , 2009: La transformation silencieuse de l'environnement et des systèmes de production au Sahel: Impacts des investissements publics et privés dans la gestion des ressources naturelles. Tech. Rep., Centre for International Cooperation/Comité Permanent Inter-États de Lutte contre la Sécheresse au Sahel, 61 pp.

  • Brandt, M., Mbow C. , Diouf A. A. , Verger A. , Amimi C. S. , and Fensholt R. , 2015: Ground- and satellite-based evidence of the biophysical mechanisms behind the greening Sahel. Global Change Biol., 21, 1610–1620, doi:10.1111/gcb.12807.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Brockhaus, M., Djoudi H. , and Locatelli B. , 2013: Envisioning the future and learning from the past: Adapting to a changing environment in northern Mali. Environ. Sci. Policy, 25, 94–106, doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2012.08.008.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Chang, C.-Y., Chiang J. C. H. , Wehner M. F. , Friedman A. , and Ruedy R. , 2011: Sulfate aerosol control of tropical Atlantic climate over the 20th century. J. Climate, 24, 2540–2555, doi:10.1175/2010JCLI4065.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Charney, J. G., 1975: Drought in the Sahara: A biogeophysical feedback mechanism. Science, 187, 434–435, doi:10.1126/science.187.4175.434.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • CIESIN/CIAT, 2005: Gridded Population of the World, Version 3 (GPWv3): Population density grid. NASA Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center, accessed 15 Jan 2016, doi:10.7927/H4XK8CG2.

  • Club du Sahel, 1998: Preparing for the future: A vision of West Africa in the year 2020—West Africa long-term perspective study. Tech. Doc., OECD/OCDE, 153 pp. [Available online at http://www.oecd.org/swac/publications/38512525.pdf.]

  • Dardel, C., Kergoat L. , Hiernaux P. , Mougin E. , Grippa M. , and Tucker C. J. , 2014: Re-greening Sahel: 30 years of remote sensing data and field observations. Remote Sens. Environ., 140, 350–364, doi:10.1016/j.rse.2013.09.011.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • de Sherbinin, A., Carr D. , Cassels S. , and Jiang L. , 2007: Population and environment. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour., 32, 345–373, doi:10.1146/annurev.energy.32.041306.100243.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Eklundh, L., and Olsson L. , 2003: Vegetation index trends for the African Sahel 1982–1999. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 1430, doi:10.1029/2002GL016772.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Fensholt, R., and Proud S. R. , 2012: Evaluation of Earth Observation based global long term vegetation trends—Comparing GIMMS and MODIS global NDVI time series. Remote Sens. Environ., 119, 131–147, doi:10.1016/j.rse.2011.12.015.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Fensholt, R., and Coauthors, 2012: Greenness in semi-arid areas across the globe 1981–2007—An Earth Observing Satellite based analysis of trends and drivers. Remote Sens. Environ., 121, 144–158, doi:10.1016/j.rse.2012.01.017.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Folland, C. K., Palmer T. N. , and Parker D. E. , 1986: Sahel rainfall and worldwide sea temperatures, 1901–85. Nature, 320, 602–607, doi:10.1038/320602a0.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Fraser, E. D. G., Dougill A. J. , Hubacek K. , Quinn C. H. , Sendzimir J. , and Termansen M. , 2011: Assessing vulnerability to climate change in dryland livelihood systems: Conceptual challenges and interdisciplinary solutions. Ecol. Soc., 16 (3), 3, doi:10.5751/ES-03402-160303.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Giannini, A., Saravanan R. , and Chang P. , 2003: Oceanic forcing of Sahel rainfall on interannual to interdecadal time scales. Science, 302, 1027–1030, doi:10.1126/science.1089357.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Giannini, A., Salack S. , Lodoun T. , Ali A. , Gaye A. T. , and Ndiaye O. , 2013: A unifying view of climate change in the Sahel linking intra-seasonal, interannual and longer time scales. Environ. Res. Lett., 8, 024010, doi:10.1088/1748-9326/8/2/024010.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Giri, J., 1983: Le Sahel Demain: Catastrophe ou Renaissance? Karthala, 336 pp.

  • Glantz, M. H., 1977: Nine fallacies of natural disaster: The case of the Sahel. Climatic Change, 1, 69–84, doi:10.1007/BF00162778.

  • Greene, A. M., Giannini A. , and Zebiak S. E. , 2009: Drought return times in the Sahel: A question of attribution. Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L12701, doi:10.1029/2009GL038868.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Held, I. M., Delworth T. L. , Lu J. , Findell K. , and Knutson T. R. , 2005: Simulation of Sahel drought in the 20th and 21st centuries. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 102, 17 891–17 896, doi:10.1073/pnas.0509057102.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Helldén, U., 1991: Desertification—Time for an assessment? Ambio, 20, 372–383.

  • Herrmann, S. M., and Hutchinson C. F. , 2005: The changing contexts of the desertification debate. J. Arid Environ., 63, 538–555, doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2005.03.003.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Herrmann, S. M., and Tappan G. G. , 2013: Vegetation impoverishment despite greening: A case study from central Senegal. J. Arid Environ., 90, 55–66, doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2012.10.020.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Herrmann, S. M., Anyamba A. , and Tucker C. J. , 2005: Recent trends in vegetation dynamics in the African Sahel and their relationship to climate. Global Environ. Change, 15, 394–404, doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2005.08.004.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Herrmann, S. M., Sall I. , and Sy O. , 2014: People and pixels in the Sahel: A study linking coarse-resolution remote sensing observations to land users’ perceptions of their changing environment in Senegal. Ecol. Soc., 19, 29, doi:10.5751/ES-06710-190329.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Heumann, B. W., Seaquist J. W. , Eklundh L. , and Jönsson P. , 2007: AVHRR derived phonological change in the Sahel and Soudan, Africa, 1982–2005. Remote Sens. Environ., 108, 385–392, doi:10.1016/j.rse.2006.11.025.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Hulme, M., 2001: Climatic perspectives on Sahelian dessication: 1973–1998. Global Environ. Change, 11, 19–29, doi:10.1016/S0959-3780(00)00042-X.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Kandji, S. T., Verchot L. , and Mackensen J. , 2006: Climate change and variability in the Sahel region: Impacts and adaptation strategies in the agricultural sector. Tech. Rep., UNEP/ICRAF, 48 pp. [Available online at http://www.unep.org/ecosystemmanagement/Portals/7/Documents/ClimateChangeSahelCombine.pdf.]

  • Kaptué, A. T., Prihodko L. , and Hanan N. P. , 2015: On regreening and degradation in Sahelian watersheds. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 112, 12 133–12 138, doi:10.1073/pnas.1509645112.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Larwanou, M., and Saadou M. , 2011: The role of human interventions in tree dynamics and environmental rehabilitation in the Sahel zone of Niger. J. Arid Environ., 75, 194–200.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Loveland, T. R., Reed B. C. , Brown J. F. , Ohlen D. O. , Zhu J. , Yang L. , and Merchant J. W. , 2000: Development of a global land cover characteristics database and IGBP DISCover from 1-km AVHRR data. Int. J. Remote Sens., 21, 1303–1330, doi:10.1080/014311600210191.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Mann, G., 2014: From Empires to NGOs in the West African Sahel: The Road to Nongovernmentality.African Studies Series, No. 129, Cambridge University Press, 300 pp.

  • Mbow, C., Mertz O. , Diouf A. , Rasmussen K. , and Reenberg A. , 2008: The history of environmental change and adaptation in the eastern Saloum–Senegal—Driving forces and perceptions. Global Planet. Change, 64, 210–221, doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2008.09.008.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • McMillan, D. E., 1995: Sahel Visions: Planned Settlement and River Blindness Control in Burkina Faso. University of Arizona Press, 223 pp.

  • Mertz, O., and Reenberg A. , 1999: Building on diversity: Pathways to agricultural intensification in Burkina Faso. Geograf. Tidsskrift, 2, 125–138.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005: Ecosystems and human well-being: Desertification synthesis. Tech. Rep., World Resources Institute, 26 pp. [Available online at http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.355.aspx.pdf.]

  • Mortimore, M., 2010: Adapting to drought in the Sahel: Lessons for climate change. Wiley Interdiscip. Rev.: Climate Change, 1, 134–143, doi:10.1002/wcc.25.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Mousseau, F., and Mittal A. , 2006: Sahel: A prisoner of starvation? A case study of the 2005 food crisis in Niger. Tech. Rep., Oakland Institute, 56 pp. [Available online at http://www.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/sahel_0.pdf.]

  • Myneni, R. B., Hall F. G. , Sellers P. J. , and Marshak A. L. , 1995: The interpretation of spectral vegetation indices. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens., 33, 481–486, doi:10.1109/36.377948.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Nicholson, S. E., 2000: The nature of rainfall variability over Africa on time scales of decades to millennia. Global Planet. Change, 26, 137–158, doi:10.1016/S0921-8181(00)00040-0.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Nicholson, S. E., 2005: On the question of the “recovery” of the rains in the West African Sahel. J. Arid Environ., 63, 615–641, doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2005.03.004.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Olsson, L., Eklundh L. , and Ardö J. , 2005: A recent greening of the Sahel—Trends, patterns and potential causes. J. Arid Environ., 63, 556–566, doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2005.03.008.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Painter, T. M., 1993: Getting it right: Linking concepts and action for improving the use of natural resources in Sahelian West Africa. Drylands Network Issues Paper 40, International Institute for Environment & Development, 39 pp. [Available online at http://pubs.iied.org/7289IIED.html?r=p.]

  • PERN-PRIPODE, 2007: PERN-PRIPODE Cyberseminar on Population-Development-Environment linkages in the Sudano-Sahelian zone of West Africa. Accessed 29 December 2015. [Available online at https://www.populationenvironmentresearch.org/cyberseminars/1450.]

  • Polgreen, L., 2007: In Niger, trees and crops turn back the desert. New York Times, 11 February, New York ed., A1. [Available online at http://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/11/world/africa/11niger.html?_r=0.]

  • Prince, S. D., Wessels K. J. , Tucker C. J. , and Nicholson S. E. , 2007: Desertification in the Sahel: A reinterpretation of a reinterpretation. Global Planet. Change, 13, 1308–1313, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2007.01356.x.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rasmussen, K., Fog B. , and Madsen J. E. , 2001: Desertification in reverse? Observations from northern Burkina Faso. Global Environ. Change, 11, 271–282, doi:10.1016/S0959-3780(01)00005-X.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Raynaut, C., Grégoire E. , Janin P. , Koechlin J. , and Delville P. L. , 1997: Societies and Nature in the Sahel. Routledge, 351 pp.

  • Reij, C. P., and Smaling E. M. A. , 2008: Analyzing successes in agriculture and land management in sub-Saharan Africa: Is macro-level gloom obscuring positive micro-level change? Land Use Policy, 25, 410–420, doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2007.10.001.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Reij, C. P., Scoones I. , and Toulmin C. , 1996: Sustaining the Soil: Indigenous Soil and Water Conservation in Africa. Earthscan Publications, 260 pp.

  • Reij, C. P., Tappan G. , and Belemvire A. , 2005: Changing land management practices and vegetation on the central plateau of Burkina Faso (1968–2002). J. Arid Environ., 63, 642–659, doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2005.03.010.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Reij, C. P., Tappan G. , and Smale M. , 2009a: Re-greening the Sahel: Farmer-led innovation in Burkina Faso and Niger. Millions Fed: Proven Successes in Agricultural Development, D. J. Spielman and R. Pandya-Lorch, Eds., International Food Policy Research Institute, 53–58.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Reij, C. P., Tappan G. , and Smale M. , 2009b: Agroenvironmental transformation in the Sahel: Another kind of “Green Revolution.” IFPRI Discussion Paper 00914, 43 pp. [Available online at http://www.ifpri.org/publication/agroenvironmental-transformation-sahel.]

  • Rotstayn, L., and Lohmann U. , 2002: Tropical rainfall trends and the indirect aerosol effect. J. Climate, 15, 2103–2116, doi:10.1175/1520-0442(2002)015<2103:TRTATI>2.0.CO;2.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Rouse, J. W., Haas R. H. , Schell J. A. , and Deering D. W. , 1974: Monitoring vegetation systems in the Great Plains with ERTS. Third Earth Resources Technology Satellite-1 Symposium, Vol. 1A, NASA, 309–317.

  • Sanders, J. H., Shapiro B. I. , and Ramaswamy S. , 1996: The Economics of Agricultural Technology in Semi-Arid Sub-Saharan Africa. Johns Hopkins University Press, 328 pp.

  • Sendzimir, J., Reij C. P. , and Magnuszewski P. , 2011: Rebuilding resilience in the Sahel: Regreening in the Maradi and Zinder regions of Niger. Ecol. Soc., 16, 1, doi:10.5751/ES-04198-160301.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Skinner, E. P., 1980: Sahelian Social Development. Regional Economic Development Services Office, USAID, 720 pp.

  • Tappan, G., and McGahuey M. , 2007: Tracking environmental dynamics and agricultural intensification in southern Mali. Agric. Syst., 94, 38–51, doi:10.1016/j.agsy.2005.07.011.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Ting, M., Kushnir Y. , Seager R. , and Li C. , 2009: Forced and internal 20th century SST trends in the North Atlantic. J. Climate, 22, 1469–1481, doi:10.1175/2008JCLI2561.1.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Tougiani, A., Guero C. , and Rinaudo T. , 2009: Community mobilization for improved livelihoods through tree crop management in Niger. GeoJournal, 74, 377–389, doi:10.1007/s10708-008-9228-7.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Trenberth, K., and Coauthors, 2007: Observations: Surface and atmospheric climate change. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis, S. Solomon et al., Eds., Cambridge University Press, 235–336.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Tucker, C. J., 1979: Red and photographic infrared linear combinations for monitoring vegetation. Remote Sens. Environ., 8, 127–150, doi:10.1016/0034-4257(79)90013-0.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Tucker, C. J., Townshend J. R. G. , and Goff T. E. , 1985: African land-cover classification using satellite data. Science, 227, 369–375, doi:10.1126/science.227.4685.369.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Tucker, C. J., Dregne H. E. , and Newcomb W. W. , 1991: Expansion and contraction of the Sahara desert from 1980 to 1990. Science, 253, 299–301, doi:10.1126/science.253.5017.299.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • United Nations, 1994: Convention to Combat Desertification. Accessed 29 December 2015. [Available online at http://www.unccd.int/en/about-the-convention/Pages/Text-overview.aspx.]

  • Watts, M. J., 1983: Silent Violence: Food, Famine and Peasantry in Northern Nigeria. University of California Press, 687 pp.

  • West, C. T., Roncoli C. , and Ouattara F. , 2008: Local perceptions and regional climate trends of the Central Plateau of Burkina Faso. Land Degrad. Dev., 19, 289–30, doi:10.1002/ldr.842.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

  • Zougmoré, R., Jalloh A. , and Tioro A. , 2014: Climate-smart soil water and nutrient management options in semi-arid West Africa: A review of evidence and analysis of stone bunds and zaï techniques. Agric. Food Secur., 3, 16, doi:10.1186/2048-7010-3-16.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
All Time Past Year Past 30 Days
Abstract Views 0 0 0
Full Text Views 5113 3665 1214
PDF Downloads 679 122 11