Browse
Abstract
In the eastern off-equatorial Indian Ocean, deep current intraseasonal variability within a typical period of 10–20 days was revealed by a mooring at 5°N, 90.5°E, accounting for over 50% of the total bottom subtidal velocity variability. The 10–20-day oscillations were more energetic in the cross-isobathic direction (STD = 3.02 cm s−1) than those in the along-isobathic direction (STD = 1.50 cm s−1). The oscillations were interpreted as topographic Rossby waves (TRWs) because they satisfied the TRWs dispersion relation that considered the smaller Coriolis parameter and stronger β effect at low latitude. Further analysis indicated significant vertical coupling between the deep cross-slope oscillations and cross-isobathic 10–20-day perturbations at the depth of 300–950 m. The 10–20-day TRWs were generated by cross-isobathic motions under the potential vorticity conservation adjustment. The Mercator Ocean output reproduced the generation of kinetic energy (KE) of deep current variability. The associated diagnostic analysis of multiscale energetics showed that the KE of TRWs was mainly supplied by vertical pressure work. In the seamount region (2°–10°N, 89°–92°E), vertical and horizontal pressure works were identified to be the dominant energy source (contributing to 94% of the total KE source) and sink (contributing to 98% of the total KE sink) of the deep current variability, transporting energy downward and redistributing energy horizontally, respectively.
Abstract
In the eastern off-equatorial Indian Ocean, deep current intraseasonal variability within a typical period of 10–20 days was revealed by a mooring at 5°N, 90.5°E, accounting for over 50% of the total bottom subtidal velocity variability. The 10–20-day oscillations were more energetic in the cross-isobathic direction (STD = 3.02 cm s−1) than those in the along-isobathic direction (STD = 1.50 cm s−1). The oscillations were interpreted as topographic Rossby waves (TRWs) because they satisfied the TRWs dispersion relation that considered the smaller Coriolis parameter and stronger β effect at low latitude. Further analysis indicated significant vertical coupling between the deep cross-slope oscillations and cross-isobathic 10–20-day perturbations at the depth of 300–950 m. The 10–20-day TRWs were generated by cross-isobathic motions under the potential vorticity conservation adjustment. The Mercator Ocean output reproduced the generation of kinetic energy (KE) of deep current variability. The associated diagnostic analysis of multiscale energetics showed that the KE of TRWs was mainly supplied by vertical pressure work. In the seamount region (2°–10°N, 89°–92°E), vertical and horizontal pressure works were identified to be the dominant energy source (contributing to 94% of the total KE source) and sink (contributing to 98% of the total KE sink) of the deep current variability, transporting energy downward and redistributing energy horizontally, respectively.
Abstract
Generating mechanisms and parameterizations for enhanced turbulence in the wake of a seamount in the path of the Kuroshio are investigated. Full-depth profiles of finescale temperature, salinity, horizontal velocity, and microscale thermal-variance dissipation rate up- and downstream of the ∼10-km-wide seamount were measured with EM-APEX profiling floats and ADCP moorings. Energetic turbulent kinetic energy dissipation rates
Abstract
Generating mechanisms and parameterizations for enhanced turbulence in the wake of a seamount in the path of the Kuroshio are investigated. Full-depth profiles of finescale temperature, salinity, horizontal velocity, and microscale thermal-variance dissipation rate up- and downstream of the ∼10-km-wide seamount were measured with EM-APEX profiling floats and ADCP moorings. Energetic turbulent kinetic energy dissipation rates
Abstract
The evolution of wind-generated near-inertial waves (NIWs) is known to be influenced by the mesoscale eddy field, yet it remains a challenge to disentangle the effects of this interaction in observations. Here, the model of Young and Ben Jelloul (YBJ), which describes NIW evolution in the presence of slowly evolving mesoscale eddies, is compared to observations from a mooring array in the northeast Atlantic Ocean. The model captures the evolution of both the observed NIW amplitude and phase much more accurately than a slab mixed layer model. The YBJ model allows for the identification of specific physical processes that drive the observed evolution. It reveals that differences in the NIW amplitude across the mooring array are caused by the refractive concentration of NIWs into anticyclones. Advection and wave dispersion also make important contributions to the observed wave evolution. Stimulated generation, a process by which mesoscale kinetic energy acts as a source of NIW potential energy, is estimated to be 20 μW m−2 in the region of the mooring array, which is two orders of magnitude smaller than the global average input to mesoscale kinetic energy and likely not an important contribution to the mesoscale kinetic energy budget in this region. Overall, the results show that the YBJ model is a quantitatively useful tool to interpret observations of NIWs.
Abstract
The evolution of wind-generated near-inertial waves (NIWs) is known to be influenced by the mesoscale eddy field, yet it remains a challenge to disentangle the effects of this interaction in observations. Here, the model of Young and Ben Jelloul (YBJ), which describes NIW evolution in the presence of slowly evolving mesoscale eddies, is compared to observations from a mooring array in the northeast Atlantic Ocean. The model captures the evolution of both the observed NIW amplitude and phase much more accurately than a slab mixed layer model. The YBJ model allows for the identification of specific physical processes that drive the observed evolution. It reveals that differences in the NIW amplitude across the mooring array are caused by the refractive concentration of NIWs into anticyclones. Advection and wave dispersion also make important contributions to the observed wave evolution. Stimulated generation, a process by which mesoscale kinetic energy acts as a source of NIW potential energy, is estimated to be 20 μW m−2 in the region of the mooring array, which is two orders of magnitude smaller than the global average input to mesoscale kinetic energy and likely not an important contribution to the mesoscale kinetic energy budget in this region. Overall, the results show that the YBJ model is a quantitatively useful tool to interpret observations of NIWs.
Abstract
The East Australian Current (EAC) system includes a poleward jet that flows adjacent to the continental shelf, a southward and eastward extension, and a complex eddy field. The EAC jet is often observed to be subsurface intensified. Here, we explain that there are two factors that cause the EAC to develop a subsurface maximum. First, the EAC flows as a narrow current, carrying low-density water from the Coral Sea into the denser waters of the Tasman Sea. This results in horizontal density gradients with a different sign on either side of the jet, negative onshore and positive offshore. According to the thermal wind relation, this produces vertical gradients in southward current that are surface intensified onshore and subsurface intensified offshore. Second, we show that the winds over the shelf are mostly downwelling favorable, drawing the surface EAC waters onshore. This aligns the region of positive horizontal density gradients with the EAC core, producing a subsurface velocity maximum. The presence of a subsurface maximum may produce baroclinic instabilities that play a role in eddy formation and EAC separation from the coast.
Significance Statement
Observations of the East Australian Current (EAC) show that the strongest currents are often below the surface at about 100-m depth. Two factors cause this subsurface maximum. First, because the EAC is a narrow jet, carrying warm water southward from the Coral Sea, the density gradient across the jet changes sign, causing surface-intensified currents onshore and subsurface-intensified currents offshore. Second, the wind field over the shelf often pulls the shallow waters shoreward, shifting the waters that cause subsurface intensification to align with the center of the jet, resulting in a subsurface maximum of the EAC. This process may be responsible for the generation of eddies in the Tasman Sea.
Abstract
The East Australian Current (EAC) system includes a poleward jet that flows adjacent to the continental shelf, a southward and eastward extension, and a complex eddy field. The EAC jet is often observed to be subsurface intensified. Here, we explain that there are two factors that cause the EAC to develop a subsurface maximum. First, the EAC flows as a narrow current, carrying low-density water from the Coral Sea into the denser waters of the Tasman Sea. This results in horizontal density gradients with a different sign on either side of the jet, negative onshore and positive offshore. According to the thermal wind relation, this produces vertical gradients in southward current that are surface intensified onshore and subsurface intensified offshore. Second, we show that the winds over the shelf are mostly downwelling favorable, drawing the surface EAC waters onshore. This aligns the region of positive horizontal density gradients with the EAC core, producing a subsurface velocity maximum. The presence of a subsurface maximum may produce baroclinic instabilities that play a role in eddy formation and EAC separation from the coast.
Significance Statement
Observations of the East Australian Current (EAC) show that the strongest currents are often below the surface at about 100-m depth. Two factors cause this subsurface maximum. First, because the EAC is a narrow jet, carrying warm water southward from the Coral Sea, the density gradient across the jet changes sign, causing surface-intensified currents onshore and subsurface-intensified currents offshore. Second, the wind field over the shelf often pulls the shallow waters shoreward, shifting the waters that cause subsurface intensification to align with the center of the jet, resulting in a subsurface maximum of the EAC. This process may be responsible for the generation of eddies in the Tasman Sea.
Abstract
Surface waves grow through a mechanism in which atmospheric pressure is offset in phase from the wavy surface. A pattern of low atmospheric pressure over upward wave orbital motions (leeward side) and high pressure over downward wave orbital motions (windward side) travels with the water wave, leading to a pumping of kinetic energy from the atmospheric boundary layer into the waves. This pressure pattern persists above the air–water interface, modifying the turbulent kinetic energy in the atmospheric wave-affected boundary layer. Here, we present field measurements of wave-coherent atmospheric pressure and velocity to elucidate the transfer of energy from the atmospheric turbulence budget into waves through wave-coherent atmospheric pressure work. Measurements show that the phase between wave-coherent pressure and velocity is shifted slightly above 90° when wind speed exceeds the wave phase speed, allowing for a downward energy flux via pressure work. Although previous studies have reported wave-coherent pressure, to the authors’ knowledge, these are the first reported field measurements of wave-coherent pressure work. Measured pressure work cospectra are consistent with an existing model for atmospheric pressure work. The implications for these measurements and their importance to the turbulent kinetic energy budget are discussed.
Significance Statement
Surface waves grow through a pattern of atmospheric pressure that travels with the water wave, acting as a pump against the water surface. The pressure pumping, sometimes called pressure work, or the piston pressure, results in a transfer of kinetic energy from the air to the water that makes waves grow larger. To conserve energy, it is thought that the pressure work on the surface must extract energy from the mean wind profile or wind turbulence that sets the shape of the wind speed with height. In this paper, we present direct measurements of pressure work in the atmosphere above surface waves. We show that the energy extracted by atmospheric pressure work fits existing models for how waves grow and a simple model for how waves reduce energy in the turbulent kinetic energy budget. To our knowledge, these are the first reported field measurements of wave-coherent pressure work.
Abstract
Surface waves grow through a mechanism in which atmospheric pressure is offset in phase from the wavy surface. A pattern of low atmospheric pressure over upward wave orbital motions (leeward side) and high pressure over downward wave orbital motions (windward side) travels with the water wave, leading to a pumping of kinetic energy from the atmospheric boundary layer into the waves. This pressure pattern persists above the air–water interface, modifying the turbulent kinetic energy in the atmospheric wave-affected boundary layer. Here, we present field measurements of wave-coherent atmospheric pressure and velocity to elucidate the transfer of energy from the atmospheric turbulence budget into waves through wave-coherent atmospheric pressure work. Measurements show that the phase between wave-coherent pressure and velocity is shifted slightly above 90° when wind speed exceeds the wave phase speed, allowing for a downward energy flux via pressure work. Although previous studies have reported wave-coherent pressure, to the authors’ knowledge, these are the first reported field measurements of wave-coherent pressure work. Measured pressure work cospectra are consistent with an existing model for atmospheric pressure work. The implications for these measurements and their importance to the turbulent kinetic energy budget are discussed.
Significance Statement
Surface waves grow through a pattern of atmospheric pressure that travels with the water wave, acting as a pump against the water surface. The pressure pumping, sometimes called pressure work, or the piston pressure, results in a transfer of kinetic energy from the air to the water that makes waves grow larger. To conserve energy, it is thought that the pressure work on the surface must extract energy from the mean wind profile or wind turbulence that sets the shape of the wind speed with height. In this paper, we present direct measurements of pressure work in the atmosphere above surface waves. We show that the energy extracted by atmospheric pressure work fits existing models for how waves grow and a simple model for how waves reduce energy in the turbulent kinetic energy budget. To our knowledge, these are the first reported field measurements of wave-coherent pressure work.
Abstract
The internal wave (IW) continuum of a regional ocean model is studied in terms of the vertical spectral kinetic energy (KE) fluxes and transfers at high vertical wavenumbers. Previous work has shown that this model permits a partial representation of the IW cascade. In this work, vertical spectral KE flux is decomposed into catalyst, source, and destination vertical modes and frequency bands of nonlinear scattering, a framework that allows for the discernment of different types of nonlinear interactions involving both waves and eddies. Energy transfer within the supertidal IW continuum is found to be strongly dependent on resolution. Specifically, at a horizontal grid spacing of 1/48°, most KE in the supertidal continuum arrives there from lower-frequency modes through a single nonlinear interaction, whereas at 1/384° and with sufficient vertical resolution KE transfers within the supertidal IW continuum are comparable in size to KE transfer from lower-frequency modes. Additionally, comparisons are made with existing theoretical and observational work on energy pathways in the IW continuum. Induced diffusion (ID) is found to be associated with a weak forward frequency transfer within the supertidal IW continuum. ID is also limited to the highest vertical wavenumbers and is more sensitive to resolution relative to spectrally local interactions. At the same time, ID-like processes involving high-vertical-wavenumber near-inertial and tidal waves as well as low-vertical-wavenumber eddy fields are substantial, suggesting that the processes giving rise to a Garrett–Munk-like spectra in the present numerical simulation and perhaps the real ocean may be more varied than in idealized or wave-only frameworks.
Abstract
The internal wave (IW) continuum of a regional ocean model is studied in terms of the vertical spectral kinetic energy (KE) fluxes and transfers at high vertical wavenumbers. Previous work has shown that this model permits a partial representation of the IW cascade. In this work, vertical spectral KE flux is decomposed into catalyst, source, and destination vertical modes and frequency bands of nonlinear scattering, a framework that allows for the discernment of different types of nonlinear interactions involving both waves and eddies. Energy transfer within the supertidal IW continuum is found to be strongly dependent on resolution. Specifically, at a horizontal grid spacing of 1/48°, most KE in the supertidal continuum arrives there from lower-frequency modes through a single nonlinear interaction, whereas at 1/384° and with sufficient vertical resolution KE transfers within the supertidal IW continuum are comparable in size to KE transfer from lower-frequency modes. Additionally, comparisons are made with existing theoretical and observational work on energy pathways in the IW continuum. Induced diffusion (ID) is found to be associated with a weak forward frequency transfer within the supertidal IW continuum. ID is also limited to the highest vertical wavenumbers and is more sensitive to resolution relative to spectrally local interactions. At the same time, ID-like processes involving high-vertical-wavenumber near-inertial and tidal waves as well as low-vertical-wavenumber eddy fields are substantial, suggesting that the processes giving rise to a Garrett–Munk-like spectra in the present numerical simulation and perhaps the real ocean may be more varied than in idealized or wave-only frameworks.
Abstract
The simple scaling relation for internal-tide generation proposed by Jayne and St. Laurent is widely used for parameterizing turbulent mixing induced by breaking of internal tides. Based on the internal-tide generation derived from a 0.1° ocean general circulation model, we show that depending on which stratification is used, this relation produces different vertical distributions of internal-tide generation. When using the buoyancy frequency at the seafloor, which is a common practice, the scaling relation produces, relative to the model, too-strong internal-tide generation in the upper 2000 m and too-weak internal-tide generation in the lower 2000 m. Moreover, the different vertical distributions in the different ocean basins, characterized by a generally decreasing internal tide generation with increasing depth in the Indo-Pacific but not-decreasing or even increasing internal tide generation with increasing depth in the upper 3000 m of the Atlantic, cannot be captured when using bottom stratification. These unsatisfactory features can be easily removed by replacing the buoyancy frequency at the seafloor by a buoyancy frequency averaged over a large part of the water column. To our knowledge, this sensitivity to stratification has not been explicitly quantified for the global ocean. Because of this sensitivity, the scaling relation of Jayne and St. Laurent should be used with an averaged stratification to ensure a more adequate representation of turbulent diffusivity due to tidal mixing and water mass transformation in the deep oceans.
Abstract
The simple scaling relation for internal-tide generation proposed by Jayne and St. Laurent is widely used for parameterizing turbulent mixing induced by breaking of internal tides. Based on the internal-tide generation derived from a 0.1° ocean general circulation model, we show that depending on which stratification is used, this relation produces different vertical distributions of internal-tide generation. When using the buoyancy frequency at the seafloor, which is a common practice, the scaling relation produces, relative to the model, too-strong internal-tide generation in the upper 2000 m and too-weak internal-tide generation in the lower 2000 m. Moreover, the different vertical distributions in the different ocean basins, characterized by a generally decreasing internal tide generation with increasing depth in the Indo-Pacific but not-decreasing or even increasing internal tide generation with increasing depth in the upper 3000 m of the Atlantic, cannot be captured when using bottom stratification. These unsatisfactory features can be easily removed by replacing the buoyancy frequency at the seafloor by a buoyancy frequency averaged over a large part of the water column. To our knowledge, this sensitivity to stratification has not been explicitly quantified for the global ocean. Because of this sensitivity, the scaling relation of Jayne and St. Laurent should be used with an averaged stratification to ensure a more adequate representation of turbulent diffusivity due to tidal mixing and water mass transformation in the deep oceans.
Abstract
A variety of submesoscale coherent vortices (SCVs) in the Kuroshio Extension region have been reported by recent observational studies, and the preliminary understanding of their properties, spatial distribution, and possible origins has progressively improved. However, due to relatively sparse in situ observations, the generation mechanisms of these SCVs and associated dynamic processes remain unclear. In this study, we use high-resolution model simulations to fill the gaps of the in situ observations in terms of the three-dimensional structures and life cycles of SCVs. Vortex detection and tracking algorithms are adopted and the characteristics of warm-core and cold-core SCVs are revealed. These vortices have finite Rossby numbers (0.25–0.4), and their horizontal structures can be well described by the Taylor vortex model in terms of the gradient wind balance. The vertical velocity field is characterized by a distinct dipole pattern with upwelling and downwelling cells at the vortex edge. It is very likely that both types of SCVs are generated along the eastern Japan coast through flow–topography interactions, and the Izu–Ogasawara Ridge and Hokkaido slope are found to be two important generation sites where topography friction produces extremely low potential vorticity. After leaving the boundary, SCVs can propagate over long distances and trap a water volume of ∼1011 m3.
Abstract
A variety of submesoscale coherent vortices (SCVs) in the Kuroshio Extension region have been reported by recent observational studies, and the preliminary understanding of their properties, spatial distribution, and possible origins has progressively improved. However, due to relatively sparse in situ observations, the generation mechanisms of these SCVs and associated dynamic processes remain unclear. In this study, we use high-resolution model simulations to fill the gaps of the in situ observations in terms of the three-dimensional structures and life cycles of SCVs. Vortex detection and tracking algorithms are adopted and the characteristics of warm-core and cold-core SCVs are revealed. These vortices have finite Rossby numbers (0.25–0.4), and their horizontal structures can be well described by the Taylor vortex model in terms of the gradient wind balance. The vertical velocity field is characterized by a distinct dipole pattern with upwelling and downwelling cells at the vortex edge. It is very likely that both types of SCVs are generated along the eastern Japan coast through flow–topography interactions, and the Izu–Ogasawara Ridge and Hokkaido slope are found to be two important generation sites where topography friction produces extremely low potential vorticity. After leaving the boundary, SCVs can propagate over long distances and trap a water volume of ∼1011 m3.
Abstract
In global ocean circulation and climate models, bottom-enhanced turbulent mixing is often parameterized such that the vertical decay scale of the energy dissipation rate ζ is universally constant at 500 m. In this study, using a nonhydrostatic two-dimensional numerical model in the horizontal–vertical plane that incorporates a monochromatic sinusoidal seafloor topography and the Garrett–Munk (GM) background internal wave field, we find that ζ of the internal lee-wave-driven bottom-enhanced mixing is actually variable depending on the magnitude of the steady flow U 0, the horizontal wavenumber kH , and the height hT of the seafloor topography. When the steepness parameter (Sp = NhT /U 0 where N is the buoyancy frequency near the seafloor) is less than 0.3, internal lee waves propagate upward from the seafloor while interacting with the GM internal wave field to create a turbulent mixing region with ζ that extends farther upward from the seafloor as U 0 increases, but is nearly independent of kH . In contrast, when Sp exceeds 0.3, inertial oscillations (IOs) not far above the seafloor are enhanced by the intermittent supply of internal lee-wave energy Doppler-shifted to the near-inertial frequency, which occurs depending on the sign and magnitude of the background IO shear. The composite flow, consisting of the superposition of U 0 and the IOs, interacts with the seafloor topography to efficiently generate internal lee waves during the period centered on the time of the composite flow maximum, but their upward propagation is inhibited by the increased IO shear, creating a turbulent mixing region of small ζ.
Abstract
In global ocean circulation and climate models, bottom-enhanced turbulent mixing is often parameterized such that the vertical decay scale of the energy dissipation rate ζ is universally constant at 500 m. In this study, using a nonhydrostatic two-dimensional numerical model in the horizontal–vertical plane that incorporates a monochromatic sinusoidal seafloor topography and the Garrett–Munk (GM) background internal wave field, we find that ζ of the internal lee-wave-driven bottom-enhanced mixing is actually variable depending on the magnitude of the steady flow U 0, the horizontal wavenumber kH , and the height hT of the seafloor topography. When the steepness parameter (Sp = NhT /U 0 where N is the buoyancy frequency near the seafloor) is less than 0.3, internal lee waves propagate upward from the seafloor while interacting with the GM internal wave field to create a turbulent mixing region with ζ that extends farther upward from the seafloor as U 0 increases, but is nearly independent of kH . In contrast, when Sp exceeds 0.3, inertial oscillations (IOs) not far above the seafloor are enhanced by the intermittent supply of internal lee-wave energy Doppler-shifted to the near-inertial frequency, which occurs depending on the sign and magnitude of the background IO shear. The composite flow, consisting of the superposition of U 0 and the IOs, interacts with the seafloor topography to efficiently generate internal lee waves during the period centered on the time of the composite flow maximum, but their upward propagation is inhibited by the increased IO shear, creating a turbulent mixing region of small ζ.
Abstract
Submesoscale currents and internal gravity waves achieve an intense turbulent cascade near the ocean surface [depth of 0–O(100) m], which is thought to give rise to significant energy sources and sinks for mesoscale eddies. Here, we characterize the contributions of nonwave currents (NWCs; including eddies and fronts) and internal gravity waves (IGWs; including near-inertial motions, lee waves, and the internal wave continuum) to near-surface submesoscale turbulence in the Drake Passage. Using a numerical simulation, we combine Lagrangian filtering and a Helmholtz decomposition to identify NWCs and IGWs and to characterize their dynamics (rotational versus divergent). We show that NWCs and IGWs contribute in different proportions to the inverse and forward turbulent kinetic energy cascades, based on their dynamics and spatiotemporal scales. Purely rotational NWCs cause most of the inverse cascade, while coupled rotational–divergent components of NWCs and coupled NWC–IGWs cause the forward cascade. The cascade changes direction at a spatial scale at which motions become increasingly divergent. However, the forward cascade is ultimately limited by the motions’ spatiotemporal scales. The bulk of the forward cascade (80%–95%) is caused by NWCs and IGWs of small spatiotemporal scales (L < 10 km; T < 6 h), which are primarily rotational: submesoscale eddies, fronts, and the internal wave continuum. These motions also cause a significant part of the inverse cascade (30%). Our results highlight the requirement for high spatiotemporal resolutions to diagnose the properties and large-scale impacts of near-surface submesoscale turbulence accurately, with significant implications for ocean energy cycle study strategies.
Abstract
Submesoscale currents and internal gravity waves achieve an intense turbulent cascade near the ocean surface [depth of 0–O(100) m], which is thought to give rise to significant energy sources and sinks for mesoscale eddies. Here, we characterize the contributions of nonwave currents (NWCs; including eddies and fronts) and internal gravity waves (IGWs; including near-inertial motions, lee waves, and the internal wave continuum) to near-surface submesoscale turbulence in the Drake Passage. Using a numerical simulation, we combine Lagrangian filtering and a Helmholtz decomposition to identify NWCs and IGWs and to characterize their dynamics (rotational versus divergent). We show that NWCs and IGWs contribute in different proportions to the inverse and forward turbulent kinetic energy cascades, based on their dynamics and spatiotemporal scales. Purely rotational NWCs cause most of the inverse cascade, while coupled rotational–divergent components of NWCs and coupled NWC–IGWs cause the forward cascade. The cascade changes direction at a spatial scale at which motions become increasingly divergent. However, the forward cascade is ultimately limited by the motions’ spatiotemporal scales. The bulk of the forward cascade (80%–95%) is caused by NWCs and IGWs of small spatiotemporal scales (L < 10 km; T < 6 h), which are primarily rotational: submesoscale eddies, fronts, and the internal wave continuum. These motions also cause a significant part of the inverse cascade (30%). Our results highlight the requirement for high spatiotemporal resolutions to diagnose the properties and large-scale impacts of near-surface submesoscale turbulence accurately, with significant implications for ocean energy cycle study strategies.
