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Abstract
Cloud-resolving large-eddy simulations (LES) on a 500 km × 500 km periodic domain coupled to a thermodynamic ocean mixed layer are used to study the effect of large-scale moisture convergence M on the convective population and heat and moisture budgets of the tropical atmosphere, for several simulations with M representative of the suppressed, transitional, and active phases of the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO). For a limited-area model without an imposed vertical velocity, M controls the overall vertical temperature structure. Moisture convergence equivalent to ~200 W m−2 (9 mm day−1) maintains the observed temperature profile above 5 km. Increased convective heating for simulations with higher M is partially offset by greater infrared cooling, suggesting a potential negative feedback that helps maintain the weak temperature gradient conditions observed in the tropics. Surface evaporation decreases as large-scale moisture convergence increases, and is only a minor component of the overall water budget for convective conditions representing the active phase of the MJO. Cold pools generated by evaporation of precipitation under convective conditions are gusty, with roughly double the wind stress of their surroundings. Consistent with observations, enhanced surface evaporation due to cold pool gusts is up to 40% of the mean, but has a small effect on the total moisture budget compared to the imposed large-scale moisture convergence.
Abstract
Cloud-resolving large-eddy simulations (LES) on a 500 km × 500 km periodic domain coupled to a thermodynamic ocean mixed layer are used to study the effect of large-scale moisture convergence M on the convective population and heat and moisture budgets of the tropical atmosphere, for several simulations with M representative of the suppressed, transitional, and active phases of the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO). For a limited-area model without an imposed vertical velocity, M controls the overall vertical temperature structure. Moisture convergence equivalent to ~200 W m−2 (9 mm day−1) maintains the observed temperature profile above 5 km. Increased convective heating for simulations with higher M is partially offset by greater infrared cooling, suggesting a potential negative feedback that helps maintain the weak temperature gradient conditions observed in the tropics. Surface evaporation decreases as large-scale moisture convergence increases, and is only a minor component of the overall water budget for convective conditions representing the active phase of the MJO. Cold pools generated by evaporation of precipitation under convective conditions are gusty, with roughly double the wind stress of their surroundings. Consistent with observations, enhanced surface evaporation due to cold pool gusts is up to 40% of the mean, but has a small effect on the total moisture budget compared to the imposed large-scale moisture convergence.
Abstract
Using ERA-Interim global atmospheric reanalysis, an original tracking approach is developed to follow tropical low pressure systems from the early tropical depression (TD) stage up to possible intensification into developed tropical cyclones (TCs). The different TC stages are identified using the IBTrACS dataset. This approach detects many more TD initiations compared to IBTrACS alone and thus gives a more comprehensive dataset to study the cyclogenesis by considering separately TD initiations and the probability of intensification.
In the south Indian Ocean (SIO), the MJO modulation of the number of TCs is primarily due to the modulation of the number of TD initiations and secondarily to the probability of their intensification. The TD initiations are more probable at 55°, 75°, and 95°E and can be primarily attributed to the development of an unstable cyclonic meridional shear of the zonal wind at low levels. The reinforcement of this shear results from (i) a heat low, related to a precipitation anomaly, which triggers westerly winds equatorward of the initiation region and (ii) an easterly wind strengthening south of the initiation regions due either to a reinforcement of the subtropical high (for western and central SIO) or to a large-scale depression over the western Maritime Continent (for eastern SIO). Over the western and central SIO, the concomitance of precipitation and subtropical high anomalies at the origin of the shear reinforcement could be partly stochastic, giving a weaker relation with MJO and ENSO. Over the eastern SIO, the large-scale MJO (and ENSO) perturbation pattern alone can reinforce the shear, giving a larger modulation of the number of TD initiations.
Abstract
Using ERA-Interim global atmospheric reanalysis, an original tracking approach is developed to follow tropical low pressure systems from the early tropical depression (TD) stage up to possible intensification into developed tropical cyclones (TCs). The different TC stages are identified using the IBTrACS dataset. This approach detects many more TD initiations compared to IBTrACS alone and thus gives a more comprehensive dataset to study the cyclogenesis by considering separately TD initiations and the probability of intensification.
In the south Indian Ocean (SIO), the MJO modulation of the number of TCs is primarily due to the modulation of the number of TD initiations and secondarily to the probability of their intensification. The TD initiations are more probable at 55°, 75°, and 95°E and can be primarily attributed to the development of an unstable cyclonic meridional shear of the zonal wind at low levels. The reinforcement of this shear results from (i) a heat low, related to a precipitation anomaly, which triggers westerly winds equatorward of the initiation region and (ii) an easterly wind strengthening south of the initiation regions due either to a reinforcement of the subtropical high (for western and central SIO) or to a large-scale depression over the western Maritime Continent (for eastern SIO). Over the western and central SIO, the concomitance of precipitation and subtropical high anomalies at the origin of the shear reinforcement could be partly stochastic, giving a weaker relation with MJO and ENSO. Over the eastern SIO, the large-scale MJO (and ENSO) perturbation pattern alone can reinforce the shear, giving a larger modulation of the number of TD initiations.
Abstract
Previous observational analysis and modeling studies indicate that air–sea coupling plays an essential role in improving MJO simulations and extending MJO forecasting skills. However, whether the SST feedback plays an indispensable role for the existence of the MJO remains controversial, and the precise physical processes through which the SST feedback may lead to better MJO simulations and forecasts remain elusive.
The DYNAMO/Cooperative Indian Ocean Experiment on Intraseasonal Variability in the Year 2011 (CINDY) field campaign recently completed over the Indian Ocean reveals a new perspective and provides better data to improve understanding of the MJO. It is found that among the five MJO events that occurred during the DYNAMO/CINDY field campaign, only two MJO events (the November and March ones) have robust SST anomalies associated with them. For the other three MJO events (the October, December, and January ones), no coherent SST anomalies are observed. This observational scenario suggests that the roles of air–sea coupling on the MJO vary greatly from event to event.
To elucidate the varying roles of air–sea coupling on different MJO events, a suite of hindcast experiments was conducted with a particular focus on the October and November MJO events. The numerical results confirm that the October MJO is largely controlled by atmospheric internal dynamics, while the November MJO is strongly coupled with underlying ocean. For the November MJO event, the positive SST anomalies significantly improve MJO forecasting by enhancing the response of a Kelvin–Rossby wave couplet, which prolongs the feedback between convection and large-scale circulations, and thus favors the development of stratiform rainfall, in turn, facilitating the production of eddy available potential energy and significantly amplifying the intensity of the model November MJO.
Abstract
Previous observational analysis and modeling studies indicate that air–sea coupling plays an essential role in improving MJO simulations and extending MJO forecasting skills. However, whether the SST feedback plays an indispensable role for the existence of the MJO remains controversial, and the precise physical processes through which the SST feedback may lead to better MJO simulations and forecasts remain elusive.
The DYNAMO/Cooperative Indian Ocean Experiment on Intraseasonal Variability in the Year 2011 (CINDY) field campaign recently completed over the Indian Ocean reveals a new perspective and provides better data to improve understanding of the MJO. It is found that among the five MJO events that occurred during the DYNAMO/CINDY field campaign, only two MJO events (the November and March ones) have robust SST anomalies associated with them. For the other three MJO events (the October, December, and January ones), no coherent SST anomalies are observed. This observational scenario suggests that the roles of air–sea coupling on the MJO vary greatly from event to event.
To elucidate the varying roles of air–sea coupling on different MJO events, a suite of hindcast experiments was conducted with a particular focus on the October and November MJO events. The numerical results confirm that the October MJO is largely controlled by atmospheric internal dynamics, while the November MJO is strongly coupled with underlying ocean. For the November MJO event, the positive SST anomalies significantly improve MJO forecasting by enhancing the response of a Kelvin–Rossby wave couplet, which prolongs the feedback between convection and large-scale circulations, and thus favors the development of stratiform rainfall, in turn, facilitating the production of eddy available potential energy and significantly amplifying the intensity of the model November MJO.
Abstract
Convective initiation processes in the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) events that occurred during the Cooperative Indian Ocean Experiment on Intraseasonal Variability in the Year 2011 (CINDY2011)/Dynamics of the Madden–Julian Oscillation (DYNAMO) intensive observation period (IOP) were investigated. Two episodes that were initiated in mid-October (MJO1) and mid-November (MJO2) 2011 were analyzed using European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) reanalysis and satellite data. Moisture budgets in the equatorial Indian Ocean (IO) domain (10°S–10°N, 60°–90°E) were analyzed in detail by separating each variable into basic-state (>80 day), intraseasonal (20–80 day), and high-frequency (<20 day) variations. The quality of the ECMWF reanalysis was also evaluated against the sounding data collected during the field campaign.
In both MJO events, the increase in precipitable water started 8–9 days prior to the convective initiation. Moisture advection decomposition revealed that advection of basic moisture by intraseasonal easterly anomalies and of intraseasonal moisture anomalies by the basic zonal wind were pronounced in these two events. The nonlinear high-frequency terms in the meridional moisture advection were the same order of magnitude as the primary term in the middle troposphere, implying systematic upscale transport of moisture. As a possible mechanism of the acceleration of easterly anomalies, amplification of off-equatorial Rossby wave trains that intruded into the equatorial zone was detected during the preconditioning periods in both MJO events.
Abstract
Convective initiation processes in the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) events that occurred during the Cooperative Indian Ocean Experiment on Intraseasonal Variability in the Year 2011 (CINDY2011)/Dynamics of the Madden–Julian Oscillation (DYNAMO) intensive observation period (IOP) were investigated. Two episodes that were initiated in mid-October (MJO1) and mid-November (MJO2) 2011 were analyzed using European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) reanalysis and satellite data. Moisture budgets in the equatorial Indian Ocean (IO) domain (10°S–10°N, 60°–90°E) were analyzed in detail by separating each variable into basic-state (>80 day), intraseasonal (20–80 day), and high-frequency (<20 day) variations. The quality of the ECMWF reanalysis was also evaluated against the sounding data collected during the field campaign.
In both MJO events, the increase in precipitable water started 8–9 days prior to the convective initiation. Moisture advection decomposition revealed that advection of basic moisture by intraseasonal easterly anomalies and of intraseasonal moisture anomalies by the basic zonal wind were pronounced in these two events. The nonlinear high-frequency terms in the meridional moisture advection were the same order of magnitude as the primary term in the middle troposphere, implying systematic upscale transport of moisture. As a possible mechanism of the acceleration of easterly anomalies, amplification of off-equatorial Rossby wave trains that intruded into the equatorial zone was detected during the preconditioning periods in both MJO events.
Abstract
This study introduces a concept of global versus local forecast skill of the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO). The global skill, measured by a commonly used MJO index [the Real-time Multivariate MJO (RMM)], evaluates the model’s capability of forecasting global patterns of the MJO, with an emphasis on the zonal wind fields. The local skill is measured by a method of tracking the eastward propagation of MJO precipitation. It provides quantitative information of the strength, propagation speed, and timing of MJO precipitation in a given region, such as the Indian Ocean. Both global and local MJO forecast skills are assessed for ECMWF forecasts of three MJO events during the 2011–12 Dynamics of the MJO (DYNAMO) field campaign. Characteristics of error growth differ substantially between global and local MJO forecast skills, and between the three MJO quantities (strength, speed, and timing) of the local skill measure. They all vary considerably among the three MJO events. Deterioration in global forecast skill for these three events appears to be related to poor local skill in forecasting the propagation speed of MJO precipitation. The global and local MJO forecast skill measures are also applied to evaluate numerical experiments of observation denial, humidity relaxation, and forcing by daily perturbations in sea surface temperature (SST). The results suggest that forecast skill or errors of convective initiation of the three MJO events have global origins. Effects of local (Indian Ocean) factors, such as enhanced observations in the initial conditions, variability of tropospheric humidity and tropical SST, on forecasts of MJO initiation and propagation are limited.
Abstract
This study introduces a concept of global versus local forecast skill of the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO). The global skill, measured by a commonly used MJO index [the Real-time Multivariate MJO (RMM)], evaluates the model’s capability of forecasting global patterns of the MJO, with an emphasis on the zonal wind fields. The local skill is measured by a method of tracking the eastward propagation of MJO precipitation. It provides quantitative information of the strength, propagation speed, and timing of MJO precipitation in a given region, such as the Indian Ocean. Both global and local MJO forecast skills are assessed for ECMWF forecasts of three MJO events during the 2011–12 Dynamics of the MJO (DYNAMO) field campaign. Characteristics of error growth differ substantially between global and local MJO forecast skills, and between the three MJO quantities (strength, speed, and timing) of the local skill measure. They all vary considerably among the three MJO events. Deterioration in global forecast skill for these three events appears to be related to poor local skill in forecasting the propagation speed of MJO precipitation. The global and local MJO forecast skill measures are also applied to evaluate numerical experiments of observation denial, humidity relaxation, and forcing by daily perturbations in sea surface temperature (SST). The results suggest that forecast skill or errors of convective initiation of the three MJO events have global origins. Effects of local (Indian Ocean) factors, such as enhanced observations in the initial conditions, variability of tropospheric humidity and tropical SST, on forecasts of MJO initiation and propagation are limited.
Abstract
Two univariate indices of the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) based on outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) are developed to track the convective component of the MJO while taking into account the seasonal cycle. These are compared with the all-season Real-time Multivariate MJO (RMM) index of Wheeler and Hendon derived from a multivariate EOF of circulation and OLR. The gross features of the OLR and circulation of composite MJOs are similar regardless of the index, although RMM is characterized by stronger circulation. Diversity in the amplitude and phase of individual MJO events between the indices is much more evident; this is demonstrated using examples from the Dynamics of the Madden–Julian Oscillation (DYNAMO) field campaign and the Year of Tropical Convection (YOTC) virtual campaign. The use of different indices can lead to quite disparate conclusions concerning MJO timing and strength, and even as to whether or not an MJO has occurred. A disadvantage of using daily OLR as an EOF basis is that it is a much noisier field than the large-scale circulation, and filtering is necessary to obtain stable results through the annual cycle. While a drawback of filtering is that it cannot be done in real time, a reasonable approximation to the original fully filtered index can be obtained by following an endpoint smoothing method. When the convective signal is of primary interest, the authors advocate the use of satellite-based metrics for retrospective analysis of the MJO for individual cases, as well as for the analysis of model skill in initiating and evolving the MJO.
Abstract
Two univariate indices of the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) based on outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) are developed to track the convective component of the MJO while taking into account the seasonal cycle. These are compared with the all-season Real-time Multivariate MJO (RMM) index of Wheeler and Hendon derived from a multivariate EOF of circulation and OLR. The gross features of the OLR and circulation of composite MJOs are similar regardless of the index, although RMM is characterized by stronger circulation. Diversity in the amplitude and phase of individual MJO events between the indices is much more evident; this is demonstrated using examples from the Dynamics of the Madden–Julian Oscillation (DYNAMO) field campaign and the Year of Tropical Convection (YOTC) virtual campaign. The use of different indices can lead to quite disparate conclusions concerning MJO timing and strength, and even as to whether or not an MJO has occurred. A disadvantage of using daily OLR as an EOF basis is that it is a much noisier field than the large-scale circulation, and filtering is necessary to obtain stable results through the annual cycle. While a drawback of filtering is that it cannot be done in real time, a reasonable approximation to the original fully filtered index can be obtained by following an endpoint smoothing method. When the convective signal is of primary interest, the authors advocate the use of satellite-based metrics for retrospective analysis of the MJO for individual cases, as well as for the analysis of model skill in initiating and evolving the MJO.
Abstract
This study presents characteristics of convective systems observed during the Dynamics of the Madden–Julian oscillation (DYNAMO) experiment by the instrumented NOAA WP-3D aircraft. Nine separate missions, with a focus on observing mesoscale convective systems (MCSs), were executed to obtain data in the active and inactive phase of a Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) in the Indian Ocean. Doppler radar and in situ thermodynamic data are used to contrast the convective system characteristics during the evolution of the MJO. Isolated convection was prominent during the inactive phases of the MJO, with deepening convection during the onset of the MJO. During the MJO peak, convection and stratiform precipitation became more widespread. A larger population of deep convective elements led to a larger area of stratiform precipitation. As the MJO decayed, convective system top heights increased, though the number of convective systems decreased, eventually transitioning back to isolated convection. A distinct shift of echo top heights and contoured frequency-by-altitude diagram distributions of radar reflectivity and vertical wind speed indicated that some mesoscale characteristics were coupled to the MJO phase. Convective characteristics in the climatological initiation region (Indian Ocean) were also apparent. Comparison to results from the Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Response Experiment (TOGA COARE) in the western Pacific indicated that DYNAMO MCSs were linearly organized more parallel to the low-level shear and without strong cold pools than in TOGA COARE. Three-dimensional MCS airflow also showed a different dynamical structure, with a lack of the descending rear inflow present in shear perpendicularly organized TOGA COARE MCSs. Weaker, but deeper updrafts were observed in DYNAMO.
Abstract
This study presents characteristics of convective systems observed during the Dynamics of the Madden–Julian oscillation (DYNAMO) experiment by the instrumented NOAA WP-3D aircraft. Nine separate missions, with a focus on observing mesoscale convective systems (MCSs), were executed to obtain data in the active and inactive phase of a Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) in the Indian Ocean. Doppler radar and in situ thermodynamic data are used to contrast the convective system characteristics during the evolution of the MJO. Isolated convection was prominent during the inactive phases of the MJO, with deepening convection during the onset of the MJO. During the MJO peak, convection and stratiform precipitation became more widespread. A larger population of deep convective elements led to a larger area of stratiform precipitation. As the MJO decayed, convective system top heights increased, though the number of convective systems decreased, eventually transitioning back to isolated convection. A distinct shift of echo top heights and contoured frequency-by-altitude diagram distributions of radar reflectivity and vertical wind speed indicated that some mesoscale characteristics were coupled to the MJO phase. Convective characteristics in the climatological initiation region (Indian Ocean) were also apparent. Comparison to results from the Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Response Experiment (TOGA COARE) in the western Pacific indicated that DYNAMO MCSs were linearly organized more parallel to the low-level shear and without strong cold pools than in TOGA COARE. Three-dimensional MCS airflow also showed a different dynamical structure, with a lack of the descending rear inflow present in shear perpendicularly organized TOGA COARE MCSs. Weaker, but deeper updrafts were observed in DYNAMO.
Abstract
Dynamics of the Madden–Julian oscillation (DYNAMO) was conducted over the equatorial Indian Ocean (IO) from October 2011 to March 2012. During mid- to late November, a strong Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) event, denoted MJO-2, initiated in the western IO and passed through the DYNAMO observation array. Dry air intrusions associated with synoptic variability in the equatorial region played a key role in the evolution of MJO-2. First, a sharp dry air intrusion surging from the subtropics into the equatorial region suppresses convection in the ITCZ south of the equator. This diminishes subsidence on the equator associated with the ITCZ convection, which leads to an equatorward shift of convection. It is viewed as a contributing factor for the onset of equatorial convection in MJO-2. Once the MJO convection is established, a second type of dry air intrusion is related to synoptic gyres within the MJO convective envelope. The westward-propagating gyres draw drier air from the subtropics into the equatorial region on the west side of the MJO-2. This dry air intrusion contributes to a 1–2-day break in the rainfall during the active phase of MJO-2. Furthermore, the dry air intrusion suppresses convection in the westerlies of the MJO in the IO. This favors the abrupt shutdown of MJO convection during transition to the suppressed phase in DYNAMO. The two types of dry air intrusions can redistribute convection from the ITCZ to the equator and favor the eastward propagation of the MJO convection. Further study of multiple MJO events is necessary to determine the generality of these findings.
Abstract
Dynamics of the Madden–Julian oscillation (DYNAMO) was conducted over the equatorial Indian Ocean (IO) from October 2011 to March 2012. During mid- to late November, a strong Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) event, denoted MJO-2, initiated in the western IO and passed through the DYNAMO observation array. Dry air intrusions associated with synoptic variability in the equatorial region played a key role in the evolution of MJO-2. First, a sharp dry air intrusion surging from the subtropics into the equatorial region suppresses convection in the ITCZ south of the equator. This diminishes subsidence on the equator associated with the ITCZ convection, which leads to an equatorward shift of convection. It is viewed as a contributing factor for the onset of equatorial convection in MJO-2. Once the MJO convection is established, a second type of dry air intrusion is related to synoptic gyres within the MJO convective envelope. The westward-propagating gyres draw drier air from the subtropics into the equatorial region on the west side of the MJO-2. This dry air intrusion contributes to a 1–2-day break in the rainfall during the active phase of MJO-2. Furthermore, the dry air intrusion suppresses convection in the westerlies of the MJO in the IO. This favors the abrupt shutdown of MJO convection during transition to the suppressed phase in DYNAMO. The two types of dry air intrusions can redistribute convection from the ITCZ to the equator and favor the eastward propagation of the MJO convection. Further study of multiple MJO events is necessary to determine the generality of these findings.
