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Abstract
During the Dynamics of the MJO (DYNAMO) field campaign, radiosonde launches were regularly conducted from three small islands/atolls (Malé and Gan, Maldives, and Diego Garcia, British Indian Ocean Territory) as part of a large-scale sounding network. Comparison of island upsondes with nearby and near-contemporaneous dropsondes over the ocean provides evidence for the magnitude and scope of the islands’ influence on the surrounding atmosphere and on the island upsonde profiles. The island’s impact on the upsonde data is most prominent in the lowest 200 m. Noting that the vertical gradients of temperature, moisture, and winds over the ocean are generally constant in the lowest 0.5 km of dropsondes, a simple procedure was constructed to adjust the upsonde profiles in the lowest few hundred meters to resemble the atmospheric structures over the open ocean. This procedure was applied to the soundings from the three islands mentioned above for the October–December 2011 period of DYNAMO. As a result of this procedure, the adjusted diurnal cycle amplitude of surface temperature is reduced fivefold, resembling that over the ocean, and low-level wind speeds are increased in ~90% of the island soundings. Examination of the impact of these sounding adjustments shows that dynamical and budget fields are primarily affected by adjustments to the wind field, whereas convective parameters are sensitive to the adjustments in thermodynamic fields. Although the impact of the adjustments is generally small (on the order of a few percent), intraseasonal wind regime changes result in some systematic variations in divergence and vertical motion over the sounding arrays.
Abstract
During the Dynamics of the MJO (DYNAMO) field campaign, radiosonde launches were regularly conducted from three small islands/atolls (Malé and Gan, Maldives, and Diego Garcia, British Indian Ocean Territory) as part of a large-scale sounding network. Comparison of island upsondes with nearby and near-contemporaneous dropsondes over the ocean provides evidence for the magnitude and scope of the islands’ influence on the surrounding atmosphere and on the island upsonde profiles. The island’s impact on the upsonde data is most prominent in the lowest 200 m. Noting that the vertical gradients of temperature, moisture, and winds over the ocean are generally constant in the lowest 0.5 km of dropsondes, a simple procedure was constructed to adjust the upsonde profiles in the lowest few hundred meters to resemble the atmospheric structures over the open ocean. This procedure was applied to the soundings from the three islands mentioned above for the October–December 2011 period of DYNAMO. As a result of this procedure, the adjusted diurnal cycle amplitude of surface temperature is reduced fivefold, resembling that over the ocean, and low-level wind speeds are increased in ~90% of the island soundings. Examination of the impact of these sounding adjustments shows that dynamical and budget fields are primarily affected by adjustments to the wind field, whereas convective parameters are sensitive to the adjustments in thermodynamic fields. Although the impact of the adjustments is generally small (on the order of a few percent), intraseasonal wind regime changes result in some systematic variations in divergence and vertical motion over the sounding arrays.
ABSTRACT
The Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) dominates tropical weather on intraseasonal 30–90-day time scales, yet mechanisms for its generation, maintenance, and propagation remain unclear. Although surface moist static energy (MSE) flux is greatest under strong winds in the convective phase, sea surface temperature (SST) warms by ~0.3°C in the clear nonconvective phase of the MJO. Winds converging into the hydrostatic low pressure under warm air over the warm SST increase the vertically integrated MSE. We estimate column-integrated MSE convergence using a model of mixed layer (ML) winds balancing friction, planetary rotation, and hydrostatic pressure gradients. Small (0.3 K) SST anomalies associated with the MJO drive 7 W m−2 net column MSE convergence averaged over the equatorial Indian Ocean ahead of MJO deep convection. The MSE convergence is in the right phase to contribute to MJO generation and propagation. It is on the order of the total MSE tendency previously assessed from reanalysis, and greater than surface heat flux anomalies driven by intraseasonal SST fluctuations.
ABSTRACT
The Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) dominates tropical weather on intraseasonal 30–90-day time scales, yet mechanisms for its generation, maintenance, and propagation remain unclear. Although surface moist static energy (MSE) flux is greatest under strong winds in the convective phase, sea surface temperature (SST) warms by ~0.3°C in the clear nonconvective phase of the MJO. Winds converging into the hydrostatic low pressure under warm air over the warm SST increase the vertically integrated MSE. We estimate column-integrated MSE convergence using a model of mixed layer (ML) winds balancing friction, planetary rotation, and hydrostatic pressure gradients. Small (0.3 K) SST anomalies associated with the MJO drive 7 W m−2 net column MSE convergence averaged over the equatorial Indian Ocean ahead of MJO deep convection. The MSE convergence is in the right phase to contribute to MJO generation and propagation. It is on the order of the total MSE tendency previously assessed from reanalysis, and greater than surface heat flux anomalies driven by intraseasonal SST fluctuations.
Abstract
Tropical convection that occurs on large-enough space and time scales may evolve in response to large-scale balanced circulations. In this scenario, large-scale midtropospheric vorticity anomalies modify the atmospheric stability by virtue of thermal wind gradient balance. The convective vertical mass flux and the moisture profile adjust to changes in atmospheric stability that affect moisture and entropy transport. We hypothesize that the convection observed during the 2011 DYNAMO field campaign evolves in response to balanced dynamics. Strong relationships between midtropospheric vorticity and atmospheric stability confirm the relationship between the dynamic and the thermodynamic environments, while robust relationships between the atmospheric stability, the vertical mass flux, and the saturation fraction provide evidence of moisture adjustment. These results are important because the part of convection that occurs as a response to balanced dynamics is potentially predictable. Furthermore, the diagnostics used in this work provide a simple framework for model evaluation, and suggest that one way to improve simulations of large-scale organized deep tropical convection in global models is to adequately capture the relationship between the dynamic and thermodynamic environments in convective parameterizations.
Abstract
Tropical convection that occurs on large-enough space and time scales may evolve in response to large-scale balanced circulations. In this scenario, large-scale midtropospheric vorticity anomalies modify the atmospheric stability by virtue of thermal wind gradient balance. The convective vertical mass flux and the moisture profile adjust to changes in atmospheric stability that affect moisture and entropy transport. We hypothesize that the convection observed during the 2011 DYNAMO field campaign evolves in response to balanced dynamics. Strong relationships between midtropospheric vorticity and atmospheric stability confirm the relationship between the dynamic and the thermodynamic environments, while robust relationships between the atmospheric stability, the vertical mass flux, and the saturation fraction provide evidence of moisture adjustment. These results are important because the part of convection that occurs as a response to balanced dynamics is potentially predictable. Furthermore, the diagnostics used in this work provide a simple framework for model evaluation, and suggest that one way to improve simulations of large-scale organized deep tropical convection in global models is to adequately capture the relationship between the dynamic and thermodynamic environments in convective parameterizations.
Abstract
An unfiltered zonal Hovmöller depiction of rainfall in the Maritime Continent (MC) reveals remarkable spatiotemporal continuity of zonally propagating disturbances with a diurnal period, which endure over multiple days and propagate faster than the individual convective storms they coupled with. This phenomenon and its sensitivity to the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) during the 2011/12 Dynamics of the MJO (DYNAMO) field campaign is examined here through a well-validated, convection-permitting model simulation conducted on a large domain. We find that these disturbances are zonally propagating diurnal gravity waves excited by vigorous nocturnal mesoscale convective systems over Sumatra and Borneo. These gravity waves are diurnally phase locked: their wavelength very closely matches the distance between these two islands (~1500 km), while their particular zonal phase speed (~±17 m s−1) allows them to propagate this distance in one diurnal cycle. We therefore hypothesize that these waves are amplified by resonant interaction due to diurnal phase locking. While these zonal gravity waves decouple from convection once beyond the MC, their divergent flow signature endures well across the Indian Ocean, provoking the notion that they may influence rainfall at far remote locations. The exact controls over this zonal phase speed remain uncertain; we note, however, that it is roughly consistent with diurnal offshore-propagating modes documented previously. Further study is required to tie this down, and more generally, to understand the sensitivity of these modes to background flow strength and the geography of the MC.
Abstract
An unfiltered zonal Hovmöller depiction of rainfall in the Maritime Continent (MC) reveals remarkable spatiotemporal continuity of zonally propagating disturbances with a diurnal period, which endure over multiple days and propagate faster than the individual convective storms they coupled with. This phenomenon and its sensitivity to the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) during the 2011/12 Dynamics of the MJO (DYNAMO) field campaign is examined here through a well-validated, convection-permitting model simulation conducted on a large domain. We find that these disturbances are zonally propagating diurnal gravity waves excited by vigorous nocturnal mesoscale convective systems over Sumatra and Borneo. These gravity waves are diurnally phase locked: their wavelength very closely matches the distance between these two islands (~1500 km), while their particular zonal phase speed (~±17 m s−1) allows them to propagate this distance in one diurnal cycle. We therefore hypothesize that these waves are amplified by resonant interaction due to diurnal phase locking. While these zonal gravity waves decouple from convection once beyond the MC, their divergent flow signature endures well across the Indian Ocean, provoking the notion that they may influence rainfall at far remote locations. The exact controls over this zonal phase speed remain uncertain; we note, however, that it is roughly consistent with diurnal offshore-propagating modes documented previously. Further study is required to tie this down, and more generally, to understand the sensitivity of these modes to background flow strength and the geography of the MC.
Abstract
Understanding convective initiation of the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) remains an unmet challenge. MJO initiation has been perceived as a process starting from a convectively suppressed large-scale condition with gradual growth of shallow convection to congestus and to deep convective and stratiform systems that cover a large-scale area. During the DYNAMO field campaign over the Indian Ocean, MJO initiation was observed to start from an existing intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) south of the equator. This raises a question of what possible role the ITCZ may play in convective initiation of the MJO. This study addresses this question through analysis of satellite observations of precipitation and a global reanalysis product. By setting several criteria, MJO and ITCZ events were objectively identified and grouped according to whether MJO initiation was immediately preceded by an ITCZ. The results demonstrate that an ITCZ is neither a necessary nor sufficient condition for convective initiation of the MJO. Nonetheless, evolution of the large-scale circulation, moisture, and convective characteristics during MJO initiation can be different with and without a preexisting ITCZ. Convective growth begins gradually before and during MJO initiation when there is a preexisting ITCZ whereas it is abrupt and slightly delayed without a preexisting ITCZ. Such differences are presumably related to the existing large-scale moist condition of the ITCZ. The results from this study suggest that there are multiple mechanisms for convective initiation of the MJO, which should be considered in theoretical understanding of the MJO.
Abstract
Understanding convective initiation of the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) remains an unmet challenge. MJO initiation has been perceived as a process starting from a convectively suppressed large-scale condition with gradual growth of shallow convection to congestus and to deep convective and stratiform systems that cover a large-scale area. During the DYNAMO field campaign over the Indian Ocean, MJO initiation was observed to start from an existing intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) south of the equator. This raises a question of what possible role the ITCZ may play in convective initiation of the MJO. This study addresses this question through analysis of satellite observations of precipitation and a global reanalysis product. By setting several criteria, MJO and ITCZ events were objectively identified and grouped according to whether MJO initiation was immediately preceded by an ITCZ. The results demonstrate that an ITCZ is neither a necessary nor sufficient condition for convective initiation of the MJO. Nonetheless, evolution of the large-scale circulation, moisture, and convective characteristics during MJO initiation can be different with and without a preexisting ITCZ. Convective growth begins gradually before and during MJO initiation when there is a preexisting ITCZ whereas it is abrupt and slightly delayed without a preexisting ITCZ. Such differences are presumably related to the existing large-scale moist condition of the ITCZ. The results from this study suggest that there are multiple mechanisms for convective initiation of the MJO, which should be considered in theoretical understanding of the MJO.
Abstract
The Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) dominates the intraseasonal variability of cloud populations of the tropical Indian and Pacific Oceans. Suppressed MJO periods consist primarily of shallow and isolated deep convection. During the transition to an active MJO, the shallow and isolated deep clouds grow upscale into the overnight hours. During active MJO periods, mesoscale convective systems occur mostly during 2–4-day bursts of rainfall activity with a statistically significant early morning peak. Yet when these rain events are separated into individual active periods, some periods do not follow the mean pattern, with the November events in particular exhibiting an afternoon peak. The radar-observed microphysical processes producing the precipitation during the major rain events of active MJO periods evolve in connection with synoptic-scale wave passages with varying influences of diurnal forcing. MJO studies that do not account for the intermittency of rainfall during active MJO phases through averaging over multiple events can lead to the misimpression that the primary rain-producing clouds of the MJO are modulated solely by the diurnal cycle.
Abstract
The Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) dominates the intraseasonal variability of cloud populations of the tropical Indian and Pacific Oceans. Suppressed MJO periods consist primarily of shallow and isolated deep convection. During the transition to an active MJO, the shallow and isolated deep clouds grow upscale into the overnight hours. During active MJO periods, mesoscale convective systems occur mostly during 2–4-day bursts of rainfall activity with a statistically significant early morning peak. Yet when these rain events are separated into individual active periods, some periods do not follow the mean pattern, with the November events in particular exhibiting an afternoon peak. The radar-observed microphysical processes producing the precipitation during the major rain events of active MJO periods evolve in connection with synoptic-scale wave passages with varying influences of diurnal forcing. MJO studies that do not account for the intermittency of rainfall during active MJO phases through averaging over multiple events can lead to the misimpression that the primary rain-producing clouds of the MJO are modulated solely by the diurnal cycle.
Abstract
We seek to use ARM MJO Investigation Experiment (AMIE)-DYNAMO field campaign observations to significantly constrain height-resolved estimates of the parameterization-relevant, causal sensitivity of convective heating Q to water vapor q. In field data, Q profiles are detected via Doppler radar wind divergence D while balloon soundings give q. Univariate regressions of D on q summarize the information from a 10-layer time–pressure series from Gan Island (0°, 90°E) as a 10 × 10 matrix. Despite the right shape and units, this is not the desired causal quantity because observations reflect confounding effects of additional q-correlated casual mechanisms. We seek to use this matrix to adjudicate among candidate estimates of the desired causal quantity: Kuang’s matrix 
Abstract
We seek to use ARM MJO Investigation Experiment (AMIE)-DYNAMO field campaign observations to significantly constrain height-resolved estimates of the parameterization-relevant, causal sensitivity of convective heating Q to water vapor q. In field data, Q profiles are detected via Doppler radar wind divergence D while balloon soundings give q. Univariate regressions of D on q summarize the information from a 10-layer time–pressure series from Gan Island (0°, 90°E) as a 10 × 10 matrix. Despite the right shape and units, this is not the desired causal quantity because observations reflect confounding effects of additional q-correlated casual mechanisms. We seek to use this matrix to adjudicate among candidate estimates of the desired causal quantity: Kuang’s matrix
Abstract
This study examines the westward-propagating convective disturbances with quasi-2-day intervals of occurrence identified over Gan Island in the central Indian Ocean from mid- to late October 2011 during the Dynamics of the Madden–Julian Oscillation (DYNAMO) field campaign. Atmospheric sounding, satellite, and radar data are used to develop a composite of seven such disturbances. Composites and spectral analyses reveal that 1) the quasi-2-day convective events comprise westward-propagating diurnal convective disturbances with phase speeds of 10–12 m s−1 whose amplitudes are modulated on a quasi-2-day time scale on a zonal scale of ~1000 km near the longitudes of Gan; 2) the cloud life cycle of quasi-2-day convective disturbances shows a distinct pattern of tropical cloud population evolution—from shallow to deep to stratiform convection; 3) the time scales of mesoscale convective system development and boundary layer modulation play essential roles in determining the periodicity of the quasi-2-day convective events; and 4) in some of the quasi-2-day events there is evidence of counterpropagating (westward and eastward) cloud systems along the lines proposed by Yamada et al. Based on these findings, an interpretation is proposed for the mechanisms for the quasi-2-day disturbances observed during DYNAMO that combines concepts from prior studies of this phenomenon over the western Pacific and Indian Oceans.
Abstract
This study examines the westward-propagating convective disturbances with quasi-2-day intervals of occurrence identified over Gan Island in the central Indian Ocean from mid- to late October 2011 during the Dynamics of the Madden–Julian Oscillation (DYNAMO) field campaign. Atmospheric sounding, satellite, and radar data are used to develop a composite of seven such disturbances. Composites and spectral analyses reveal that 1) the quasi-2-day convective events comprise westward-propagating diurnal convective disturbances with phase speeds of 10–12 m s−1 whose amplitudes are modulated on a quasi-2-day time scale on a zonal scale of ~1000 km near the longitudes of Gan; 2) the cloud life cycle of quasi-2-day convective disturbances shows a distinct pattern of tropical cloud population evolution—from shallow to deep to stratiform convection; 3) the time scales of mesoscale convective system development and boundary layer modulation play essential roles in determining the periodicity of the quasi-2-day convective events; and 4) in some of the quasi-2-day events there is evidence of counterpropagating (westward and eastward) cloud systems along the lines proposed by Yamada et al. Based on these findings, an interpretation is proposed for the mechanisms for the quasi-2-day disturbances observed during DYNAMO that combines concepts from prior studies of this phenomenon over the western Pacific and Indian Oceans.
Abstract
The interactions between equatorial convection and humidity as a function of height, at a range of time scales, remain an important research frontier. The ability of surface-based microwave radiometry to contribute to such research is assessed using retrievals of the vertical structure of atmospheric humidity above the equatorial Indian Ocean, developed as part of the Dynamics of Madden–Julian Oscillation field campaign. The optimally estimated humidity retrievals are based on radiances at five frequencies spanning 20–30 GHz and are constrained by radiometer-derived water vapor paths that compare well to radiosonde values except in highly convective conditions. The moisture retrievals possess a robust 2 degrees of freedom, allowing the atmosphere to be treated as two independent layers. A mean bias of 1 g kg−1 contains a vertical structure that is removed in the assessments. The retrieved moisture profiles are able to capture humidity variability within two layer averages at intraseasonal, synoptic, and daily time scales. The retrieved humidity profiles at hourly scales are qualitatively correct under synoptically suppressed conditions but with an exaggerated vertical bimodality. The retrievals do not match radiosonde profiles within most of the day prior to/after convection. This analysis serves to better delineate applications for radiometers. Radiometers can usefully augment more expensive radiosonde networks for longer-term monitoring given careful cross-instrument calibration. At shorter time scales, a synergism with additional instruments can likely increase the realism of the retrievals.
Abstract
The interactions between equatorial convection and humidity as a function of height, at a range of time scales, remain an important research frontier. The ability of surface-based microwave radiometry to contribute to such research is assessed using retrievals of the vertical structure of atmospheric humidity above the equatorial Indian Ocean, developed as part of the Dynamics of Madden–Julian Oscillation field campaign. The optimally estimated humidity retrievals are based on radiances at five frequencies spanning 20–30 GHz and are constrained by radiometer-derived water vapor paths that compare well to radiosonde values except in highly convective conditions. The moisture retrievals possess a robust 2 degrees of freedom, allowing the atmosphere to be treated as two independent layers. A mean bias of 1 g kg−1 contains a vertical structure that is removed in the assessments. The retrieved moisture profiles are able to capture humidity variability within two layer averages at intraseasonal, synoptic, and daily time scales. The retrieved humidity profiles at hourly scales are qualitatively correct under synoptically suppressed conditions but with an exaggerated vertical bimodality. The retrievals do not match radiosonde profiles within most of the day prior to/after convection. This analysis serves to better delineate applications for radiometers. Radiometers can usefully augment more expensive radiosonde networks for longer-term monitoring given careful cross-instrument calibration. At shorter time scales, a synergism with additional instruments can likely increase the realism of the retrievals.
Abstract
During the 2011 special observing period of the Dynamics of the Madden–Julian Oscillation (DYNAMO) field experiment, two sounding arrays were established over the central Indian Ocean, one north and one south of the equator, referred to here as the NSA and SSA, respectively. Three-hourly soundings from these arrays augmented by observations of radiation and rainfall are used to investigate the diurnal cycle of ITCZ convection during the MJO suppressed phase. During the first half of October, when convection was suppressed over the NSA but prominent over the SSA, the circulation over the sounding arrays could be characterized as a local Hadley cell. Strong rising motion was present within the ITCZ extending across the SSA with compensating subsidence over the NSA. A prominent diurnal pulsing of this cell was observed, impacting conditions on both sides of the equator, with the cell running strongest in the early morning hours (0500–0800 LT) and notably weakening later in the day (1700–2000 LT). The declining daytime subsidence over the NSA may have assisted the moistening of the low to midtroposphere there during the pre-onset stage of the MJO. Apparent heating Q 1 within the ITCZ exhibited a diurnal evolution from early morning bottom-heavy profiles to weaker daytime top-heavy profiles, indicating a progression from convective to stratiform precipitation. Making use of the weak temperature gradient approximation, results suggest that both horizontal radiative heating gradients and direct cloud radiative forcing have an important influence on diurnal variations of vertical motion and convection within the ITCZ.
Abstract
During the 2011 special observing period of the Dynamics of the Madden–Julian Oscillation (DYNAMO) field experiment, two sounding arrays were established over the central Indian Ocean, one north and one south of the equator, referred to here as the NSA and SSA, respectively. Three-hourly soundings from these arrays augmented by observations of radiation and rainfall are used to investigate the diurnal cycle of ITCZ convection during the MJO suppressed phase. During the first half of October, when convection was suppressed over the NSA but prominent over the SSA, the circulation over the sounding arrays could be characterized as a local Hadley cell. Strong rising motion was present within the ITCZ extending across the SSA with compensating subsidence over the NSA. A prominent diurnal pulsing of this cell was observed, impacting conditions on both sides of the equator, with the cell running strongest in the early morning hours (0500–0800 LT) and notably weakening later in the day (1700–2000 LT). The declining daytime subsidence over the NSA may have assisted the moistening of the low to midtroposphere there during the pre-onset stage of the MJO. Apparent heating Q 1 within the ITCZ exhibited a diurnal evolution from early morning bottom-heavy profiles to weaker daytime top-heavy profiles, indicating a progression from convective to stratiform precipitation. Making use of the weak temperature gradient approximation, results suggest that both horizontal radiative heating gradients and direct cloud radiative forcing have an important influence on diurnal variations of vertical motion and convection within the ITCZ.
