Abstract
The Propagation of Intraseasonal Tropical Oscillations (PISTON) experiment conducted a field campaign inAugust-October 2018. The R/V Thomas G. Thompson made two cruises in thewestern North Pacific region north of Palau and east of the Philippines. Using select field observations and global observational and reanalysis data sets, this study describes the large-scale state and evolution of the atmosphere and ocean during these cruises. Intraseasonal variability was weak during the field program, except for a period of suppressed convection in October. Tropical cyclone activity, on the other hand, was strong. Variability at the ship location was characterized by periods of low-level easterly atmospheric flow with embedded westward propagating synoptic-scale atmospheric disturbances, punctuated by periods of strong low-level westerly winds that were both connected to the Asian monsoon westerlies and associated with tropical cyclones. In the most dramatic case, westerlies persisted for days during and after tropical cyclone Jebi had passed to the north of the ship. In these periods, the sea surface temperature was reduced by a couple of degrees by both wind mixing and net surface heat fluxes that were strongly (~200Wm −2) out of the ocean, due to both large latent heat flux and cloud shading associated with widespread deep convection. Underway conductivity-temperature transects showed dramatic cooling and deepening of the ocean mixed layer and erosion of the barrier layer after the passage of Typhoon Mangkhut due to entrainment of cooler water from below. Strong zonal currents observed over at least the upper 400 meters were likely related to the generation and propagation of near-inertial currents.
Abstract
The Propagation of Intraseasonal Tropical Oscillations (PISTON) experiment conducted a field campaign inAugust-October 2018. The R/V Thomas G. Thompson made two cruises in thewestern North Pacific region north of Palau and east of the Philippines. Using select field observations and global observational and reanalysis data sets, this study describes the large-scale state and evolution of the atmosphere and ocean during these cruises. Intraseasonal variability was weak during the field program, except for a period of suppressed convection in October. Tropical cyclone activity, on the other hand, was strong. Variability at the ship location was characterized by periods of low-level easterly atmospheric flow with embedded westward propagating synoptic-scale atmospheric disturbances, punctuated by periods of strong low-level westerly winds that were both connected to the Asian monsoon westerlies and associated with tropical cyclones. In the most dramatic case, westerlies persisted for days during and after tropical cyclone Jebi had passed to the north of the ship. In these periods, the sea surface temperature was reduced by a couple of degrees by both wind mixing and net surface heat fluxes that were strongly (~200Wm −2) out of the ocean, due to both large latent heat flux and cloud shading associated with widespread deep convection. Underway conductivity-temperature transects showed dramatic cooling and deepening of the ocean mixed layer and erosion of the barrier layer after the passage of Typhoon Mangkhut due to entrainment of cooler water from below. Strong zonal currents observed over at least the upper 400 meters were likely related to the generation and propagation of near-inertial currents.
Abstract
This manuscript describes a software suite that can be used for objective evaluation of tropical cyclones (TCs) in gridded climate data. Using cyclone trajectories derived from 6-hourly data, a comprehensive set of metrics is defined to systematically compare and contrast products to one another. In addition to annual TC climatologies, attention is paid to spatial and temporal patterns of storm occurrence and intensity. Assessment can be performed either on the global scale or regional domains. Simple to visualize ‘scorecards’ allow for rapid credibility assessment. We showcase three key findings enabled by this suite. First, we compare the representation of TCs in seven current-generation global reanalyses and conclude that higher resolution models and those with TC-specific assimilation contain more accurate storm climatologies. Second, using a free-running Earth system model (ESM) we find that full basin refinement is required in variable-resolution configurations to adequately simulate North Atlantic TC frequency. Upstream refinement over northern Africa offers little benefit in simulating storm occurrence but spatial genesis patterns are improved. Finally, we show that TCs simulated by ESMs can be highly sensitive to individual parameterizations in climate models, with North Atlantic TC metrics varying greatly depending on version of the Morrison-Gettelman microphysics package.
Abstract
This manuscript describes a software suite that can be used for objective evaluation of tropical cyclones (TCs) in gridded climate data. Using cyclone trajectories derived from 6-hourly data, a comprehensive set of metrics is defined to systematically compare and contrast products to one another. In addition to annual TC climatologies, attention is paid to spatial and temporal patterns of storm occurrence and intensity. Assessment can be performed either on the global scale or regional domains. Simple to visualize ‘scorecards’ allow for rapid credibility assessment. We showcase three key findings enabled by this suite. First, we compare the representation of TCs in seven current-generation global reanalyses and conclude that higher resolution models and those with TC-specific assimilation contain more accurate storm climatologies. Second, using a free-running Earth system model (ESM) we find that full basin refinement is required in variable-resolution configurations to adequately simulate North Atlantic TC frequency. Upstream refinement over northern Africa offers little benefit in simulating storm occurrence but spatial genesis patterns are improved. Finally, we show that TCs simulated by ESMs can be highly sensitive to individual parameterizations in climate models, with North Atlantic TC metrics varying greatly depending on version of the Morrison-Gettelman microphysics package.
Abstract
Precipitation is a key component of the global water cycle and plays a crucial role in flooding, droughts, and water supply. One way to manage its socioeconomic effects is based on precipitation forecasts from numerical weather prediction (NWP) models, and an important step to improve precipitation forecasts is by diagnosing NWP biases. In this study, we investigate the biases in precipitation forecasts from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts Integrated Forecasting System (IFS). Using the IFS control forecast from 12 June 2019 to 11 June 2020 at 5,219 stations globally, we show that in each of the boreal winter and summer half years, the IFS (1) has an average global wet bias and (2) displays similar bias patterns for forecasts starting at 0000 UTC and 1200 UTC and across forecast days 1 to 5. These biases are dependent on observed (climatological) precipitation; stations with low observed precipitation have an IFS wet bias, while stations with high observed precipitation have an IFS dry bias. Southeast Asia has a wet bias of 1.61 mm day-1 (in boreal summer) and over the study period the precipitation is overestimated by 31.0% on forecast day 3. This is the hydrological signature of several hypothesized processes including issues specifying the IFS snowpack over the Tibetan Plateau which may affect the Meiyu front. These biases have implications for IFS land-atmosphere feedbacks, river discharge, and for ocean circulation in the southeast Asia region. Reducing these biases could lead to more accurate forecasts of the global water cycle.
Abstract
Precipitation is a key component of the global water cycle and plays a crucial role in flooding, droughts, and water supply. One way to manage its socioeconomic effects is based on precipitation forecasts from numerical weather prediction (NWP) models, and an important step to improve precipitation forecasts is by diagnosing NWP biases. In this study, we investigate the biases in precipitation forecasts from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts Integrated Forecasting System (IFS). Using the IFS control forecast from 12 June 2019 to 11 June 2020 at 5,219 stations globally, we show that in each of the boreal winter and summer half years, the IFS (1) has an average global wet bias and (2) displays similar bias patterns for forecasts starting at 0000 UTC and 1200 UTC and across forecast days 1 to 5. These biases are dependent on observed (climatological) precipitation; stations with low observed precipitation have an IFS wet bias, while stations with high observed precipitation have an IFS dry bias. Southeast Asia has a wet bias of 1.61 mm day-1 (in boreal summer) and over the study period the precipitation is overestimated by 31.0% on forecast day 3. This is the hydrological signature of several hypothesized processes including issues specifying the IFS snowpack over the Tibetan Plateau which may affect the Meiyu front. These biases have implications for IFS land-atmosphere feedbacks, river discharge, and for ocean circulation in the southeast Asia region. Reducing these biases could lead to more accurate forecasts of the global water cycle.
Abstract
The forecast of tropical cyclone (TC) intensity is a significant challenge. In this study, we showcase the impact of strongly coupled data assimilation with hypothetical ocean currents on analyses and forecasts of Typhoon Hato (2017). Several observation simulation system experiments were undertaken with a regional coupled ocean-atmosphere model. We assimilated combinations of (or individually) a hypothetical coastal current HF radar network, a dense array of drifter floats and minimum sea-level pressure. During the assimilation, instant updates of many important atmospheric variables (winds and pressure) are achieved from the assimilation of ocean current observations using the cross-domain error covariance, significantly improving the track and intensity analysis of Typhoon Hato. As compared to a control experiment (with no assimilation), the error of minimum pressure decreased by up to 13 hPa (4 hPa / 57 % on average). The maximum wind speed error decreased by up to 18 knots (5 knots / 41 % on average). By contrast, weakly coupled implementations cannot match these reductions (10% on average). Although traditional atmospheric observations were not assimilated, such improvements indicate there is considerable potential in assimilating ocean currents from coastal HF radar, and surface drifters within a strongly coupled framework for intense landfalling TCs.
Abstract
The forecast of tropical cyclone (TC) intensity is a significant challenge. In this study, we showcase the impact of strongly coupled data assimilation with hypothetical ocean currents on analyses and forecasts of Typhoon Hato (2017). Several observation simulation system experiments were undertaken with a regional coupled ocean-atmosphere model. We assimilated combinations of (or individually) a hypothetical coastal current HF radar network, a dense array of drifter floats and minimum sea-level pressure. During the assimilation, instant updates of many important atmospheric variables (winds and pressure) are achieved from the assimilation of ocean current observations using the cross-domain error covariance, significantly improving the track and intensity analysis of Typhoon Hato. As compared to a control experiment (with no assimilation), the error of minimum pressure decreased by up to 13 hPa (4 hPa / 57 % on average). The maximum wind speed error decreased by up to 18 knots (5 knots / 41 % on average). By contrast, weakly coupled implementations cannot match these reductions (10% on average). Although traditional atmospheric observations were not assimilated, such improvements indicate there is considerable potential in assimilating ocean currents from coastal HF radar, and surface drifters within a strongly coupled framework for intense landfalling TCs.
Abstract
In this study the impact of extreme cyclones on Arctic sea ice in summer is investigated. Examined in particular are relative thermodynamic and dynamic contributions to sea ice volume budgets in the vicinity of Arctic summer cyclones in 2012 and 2016. Results from this investigation illustrate sea ice loss in the vicinity of the cyclone trajectories during each year were associated with different dominant processes: thermodynamic (melting) in the Pacific sector of the Arctic in 2012, and both thermodynamic and dynamic processes in the Pacific sector of the Arctic in 2016. Comparison of both years further suggests that the Arctic minimum sea ice extent is influenced by not only the strength of the cyclone, but also by the timing and location relative to the sea ice edge. Located near the sea ice edge in early August in 2012, and over the central Arctic later in August in 2016, extreme cyclones contributed to comparable sea ice area (SIA) loss, yet enhanced sea ice volume loss in 2012 relative to 2016.
Central to a characterization of extreme cyclone impacts on Arctic sea ice from the perspective of thermodynamic and dynamic processes, we present an index describing relative thermodynamic and dynamic contributions to sea ice volume changes. This index helps to quantify and improve our understanding of initial sea ice state and dynamical responses to cyclones in a rapidly warming Arctic, with implications for seasonal ice forecasting, marine navigation, coastal community infrastructure and designation of protected and ecologically sensitive marine zones.
Abstract
In this study the impact of extreme cyclones on Arctic sea ice in summer is investigated. Examined in particular are relative thermodynamic and dynamic contributions to sea ice volume budgets in the vicinity of Arctic summer cyclones in 2012 and 2016. Results from this investigation illustrate sea ice loss in the vicinity of the cyclone trajectories during each year were associated with different dominant processes: thermodynamic (melting) in the Pacific sector of the Arctic in 2012, and both thermodynamic and dynamic processes in the Pacific sector of the Arctic in 2016. Comparison of both years further suggests that the Arctic minimum sea ice extent is influenced by not only the strength of the cyclone, but also by the timing and location relative to the sea ice edge. Located near the sea ice edge in early August in 2012, and over the central Arctic later in August in 2016, extreme cyclones contributed to comparable sea ice area (SIA) loss, yet enhanced sea ice volume loss in 2012 relative to 2016.
Central to a characterization of extreme cyclone impacts on Arctic sea ice from the perspective of thermodynamic and dynamic processes, we present an index describing relative thermodynamic and dynamic contributions to sea ice volume changes. This index helps to quantify and improve our understanding of initial sea ice state and dynamical responses to cyclones in a rapidly warming Arctic, with implications for seasonal ice forecasting, marine navigation, coastal community infrastructure and designation of protected and ecologically sensitive marine zones.
Abstract
As leaders of civil society, governments have a prime responsibility to communicate climate change information in order to motivate their citizens to mitigate and adapt. This study compares the approaches of the United Kingdom (UK) and Hong Kong (HK) governments. Although different in size and population, the UK and HK have similar climate change agendas to communicate to similarly educated and prosperous populations. The study finds that whilst both governments use similar means: policy, education, campaigns, internet and social media, these have different characteristics, with different emphases in their climate change message. The UK’s top-down approach is more prominent in its legally binding policy and well-defined programmes for adaptation and risk assessment. HK has more effectively embedded climate change education across the school curricula, and has a more centralized and consistently branded campaign, with widespread use of visual language to connect the public to the problem. HK frames climate change as a science-society problem, and has a greater focus on self-responsibility and bottom-up behavioral change. Thus, the UK and HK governments have polarized approaches to motivating their citizens into climate action. Moving forwards, both governments should consider best practice elements of the other to develop their communication of climate change.
Abstract
As leaders of civil society, governments have a prime responsibility to communicate climate change information in order to motivate their citizens to mitigate and adapt. This study compares the approaches of the United Kingdom (UK) and Hong Kong (HK) governments. Although different in size and population, the UK and HK have similar climate change agendas to communicate to similarly educated and prosperous populations. The study finds that whilst both governments use similar means: policy, education, campaigns, internet and social media, these have different characteristics, with different emphases in their climate change message. The UK’s top-down approach is more prominent in its legally binding policy and well-defined programmes for adaptation and risk assessment. HK has more effectively embedded climate change education across the school curricula, and has a more centralized and consistently branded campaign, with widespread use of visual language to connect the public to the problem. HK frames climate change as a science-society problem, and has a greater focus on self-responsibility and bottom-up behavioral change. Thus, the UK and HK governments have polarized approaches to motivating their citizens into climate action. Moving forwards, both governments should consider best practice elements of the other to develop their communication of climate change.
Abstract
Atmospheric moisture is a key component in the water cycle and radiative transfer. In this study, a comprehensive picture of air moisture climatology and related physical processes is presented for the first time for the circumpolar area south of 50°S. The results are based on the most modern global reanalysis, ERA-5, which manages reasonably well to close the Antarctic water budget. We show that over the ocean transient cyclones have the dominant role in determining moisture conditions, whereas over the continent the moisture conditions are largely affected by the mean circulation. Over the open sea, moisture transport from lower latitudes is an equally important source of moisture compared to the local evaporation, but practically all precipitating moisture over the plateau is provided by the horizontal transport. Over the ocean and continental slopes, southward moisture transport brings warm and moist air masses from lower latitudes, notably increasing atmospheric water vapor and cloud water, and simultaneously decreasing local evaporation over the open sea. On the Antarctic plateau, radiative cooling leads to high relative humidity and causes condensation of moisture especially near the surface, causing a nearly permanent specific humidity inversion layer. As a consequence, dry air masses with extremely low specific humidity are formed. These dry air masses are transported downwards from the plateau by katabatic winds, experiencing adiabatic warming. This leads to a decrease in relative humidity and to downward-directed sensible heat flux, which enable efficient surface evaporation on the coastal slopes and farther over coastal polynyas and leads.
Abstract
Atmospheric moisture is a key component in the water cycle and radiative transfer. In this study, a comprehensive picture of air moisture climatology and related physical processes is presented for the first time for the circumpolar area south of 50°S. The results are based on the most modern global reanalysis, ERA-5, which manages reasonably well to close the Antarctic water budget. We show that over the ocean transient cyclones have the dominant role in determining moisture conditions, whereas over the continent the moisture conditions are largely affected by the mean circulation. Over the open sea, moisture transport from lower latitudes is an equally important source of moisture compared to the local evaporation, but practically all precipitating moisture over the plateau is provided by the horizontal transport. Over the ocean and continental slopes, southward moisture transport brings warm and moist air masses from lower latitudes, notably increasing atmospheric water vapor and cloud water, and simultaneously decreasing local evaporation over the open sea. On the Antarctic plateau, radiative cooling leads to high relative humidity and causes condensation of moisture especially near the surface, causing a nearly permanent specific humidity inversion layer. As a consequence, dry air masses with extremely low specific humidity are formed. These dry air masses are transported downwards from the plateau by katabatic winds, experiencing adiabatic warming. This leads to a decrease in relative humidity and to downward-directed sensible heat flux, which enable efficient surface evaporation on the coastal slopes and farther over coastal polynyas and leads.
Abstract
The Beaufort High (BH) and its accompanying anticyclonic winds drive the Arctic Ocean’s Beaufort Gyre, the major freshwater reservoir of the Arctic Ocean. The Beaufort Gyre circulation and its capacity to accumulate or release freshwater relies on the BH intensity. The migration of Nordic Seas cyclones into the Arctic has been hypothesized to moderate the strength of the BH. We explore this hypothesis by analyzing reanalysis sea-level pressure (SLP) fields to characterize the BH and identify and track cyclones north of 60°N during 1948-2019. A cluster analysis of Nordic Seas cyclone trajectories reveals a western pathway (through the Arctic interior) associated with a relatively weak BH and an eastern pathway (along the Arctic periphery) associated with a relatively strong BH. Furthermore, we construct cyclone activity indices (CAIs) in the Arctic and Nordic Seas which take into account multiple cyclone parameters (number, strength, duration). There are significant correlations between the BH and the CAIs in the Arctic and Nordic Seas during 1948-2019, with anomalously strong cyclone activity related to an anomalously weak BH, and vice versa. We show how the Arctic and Nordic Seas CAIs experienced a regime shift towards increased cyclone activity between the first four decades analyzed (1948-1988) and the most recent three decades (1989-2019). Over the same two time periods, the BH exhibits a weakening. Increased cyclone activity and an accompanying weakening of the BH may be consistent with expectations in a warming Arctic, and has implications for Beaufort Gyre dynamics and freshwater.
Abstract
The Beaufort High (BH) and its accompanying anticyclonic winds drive the Arctic Ocean’s Beaufort Gyre, the major freshwater reservoir of the Arctic Ocean. The Beaufort Gyre circulation and its capacity to accumulate or release freshwater relies on the BH intensity. The migration of Nordic Seas cyclones into the Arctic has been hypothesized to moderate the strength of the BH. We explore this hypothesis by analyzing reanalysis sea-level pressure (SLP) fields to characterize the BH and identify and track cyclones north of 60°N during 1948-2019. A cluster analysis of Nordic Seas cyclone trajectories reveals a western pathway (through the Arctic interior) associated with a relatively weak BH and an eastern pathway (along the Arctic periphery) associated with a relatively strong BH. Furthermore, we construct cyclone activity indices (CAIs) in the Arctic and Nordic Seas which take into account multiple cyclone parameters (number, strength, duration). There are significant correlations between the BH and the CAIs in the Arctic and Nordic Seas during 1948-2019, with anomalously strong cyclone activity related to an anomalously weak BH, and vice versa. We show how the Arctic and Nordic Seas CAIs experienced a regime shift towards increased cyclone activity between the first four decades analyzed (1948-1988) and the most recent three decades (1989-2019). Over the same two time periods, the BH exhibits a weakening. Increased cyclone activity and an accompanying weakening of the BH may be consistent with expectations in a warming Arctic, and has implications for Beaufort Gyre dynamics and freshwater.
Abstract
The turbulent energy dissipation rate in the ocean can be measured by using rapidly sampling microstructure shear probes, or by applying a finescale parametrization to coarser resolution density and/or shear profiles. The two techniques require measurements that are on different spatiotemporal scales and generate dissipation rate estimates that also differ in spatiotemporal scale. Since the distribution of the measured energy dissipation rate is closer to lognormal than normal and fluctuates with the strength of the turbulence, averaging the two approaches on equivalent spatiotemporal scales is critical for accurately comparing the two methods. Here, microstructure data from the 1997 Brazil Basin Tracer Release Experiment (BBTRE) is used to demonstrate that comparing averages of the dissipation rate on different spatiotemporal scales can generate spurious discrepancies of up to a factor of O10 in regions of strong turbulence and smaller biases of up to a factor of 2 in the presence of weaker turbulence.
Abstract
The turbulent energy dissipation rate in the ocean can be measured by using rapidly sampling microstructure shear probes, or by applying a finescale parametrization to coarser resolution density and/or shear profiles. The two techniques require measurements that are on different spatiotemporal scales and generate dissipation rate estimates that also differ in spatiotemporal scale. Since the distribution of the measured energy dissipation rate is closer to lognormal than normal and fluctuates with the strength of the turbulence, averaging the two approaches on equivalent spatiotemporal scales is critical for accurately comparing the two methods. Here, microstructure data from the 1997 Brazil Basin Tracer Release Experiment (BBTRE) is used to demonstrate that comparing averages of the dissipation rate on different spatiotemporal scales can generate spurious discrepancies of up to a factor of O10 in regions of strong turbulence and smaller biases of up to a factor of 2 in the presence of weaker turbulence.
Abstract
Most historical sea-surface temperature (SST) estimates indicate warmer World War II SSTs than expected from forcing and internal climate variability. If real, this World War II Warm Anomaly (WW2WA) has important implications for decadal variability, but the WW2WA may also arise from incomplete corrections of biases associated with bucket and engine room intake (ERI) measurements. To better assess the origins of theWW2WA, we develop five different historical SST estimates (R1–5). Using uncorrected SST measurements from the International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set version 3.0 (R1) gives a WW2WA of 0.41°C. In contrast, using only buckets (R2) or ERI observations (R3) gives WW2WAs of 0.18°C and 0.08°C, respectively, implying that uncorrected biases are the primary source of the WW2WA. We then use an extended linear-mixed-effects method to quantify systematic differences between subsets of SSTs and develop groupwise SST adjustments based on differences between pairs of nearby SST measurements. Using all measurements after applying groupwise adjustments (R4) gives a WW2WA of 0.13°C (95% c.i., 0.01–0.26°C) and indicates that U.S. and U.K. naval observations are the primary cause of the WW2WA. Finally, nighttime bucket SSTs are found to be warmer than their daytime counterparts during WW2, prompting a daytime-only reconstruction using groupwise adjustments (R5) that has a WW2WA of 0.09°C (95% c.i., -0.01–0.18°C). R5 is consistent with the range of internal variability found in either the CMIP5 (95% c.i., -0.10–0.10°C) or CMIP6 ensembles (95% c.i., -0.11–0.10°C). These results support the hypothesis that the WW2WA is an artifact of observational biases, though further data and metadata analyses will be important for confirmation.
Abstract
Most historical sea-surface temperature (SST) estimates indicate warmer World War II SSTs than expected from forcing and internal climate variability. If real, this World War II Warm Anomaly (WW2WA) has important implications for decadal variability, but the WW2WA may also arise from incomplete corrections of biases associated with bucket and engine room intake (ERI) measurements. To better assess the origins of theWW2WA, we develop five different historical SST estimates (R1–5). Using uncorrected SST measurements from the International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set version 3.0 (R1) gives a WW2WA of 0.41°C. In contrast, using only buckets (R2) or ERI observations (R3) gives WW2WAs of 0.18°C and 0.08°C, respectively, implying that uncorrected biases are the primary source of the WW2WA. We then use an extended linear-mixed-effects method to quantify systematic differences between subsets of SSTs and develop groupwise SST adjustments based on differences between pairs of nearby SST measurements. Using all measurements after applying groupwise adjustments (R4) gives a WW2WA of 0.13°C (95% c.i., 0.01–0.26°C) and indicates that U.S. and U.K. naval observations are the primary cause of the WW2WA. Finally, nighttime bucket SSTs are found to be warmer than their daytime counterparts during WW2, prompting a daytime-only reconstruction using groupwise adjustments (R5) that has a WW2WA of 0.09°C (95% c.i., -0.01–0.18°C). R5 is consistent with the range of internal variability found in either the CMIP5 (95% c.i., -0.10–0.10°C) or CMIP6 ensembles (95% c.i., -0.11–0.10°C). These results support the hypothesis that the WW2WA is an artifact of observational biases, though further data and metadata analyses will be important for confirmation.
