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Abstract
The earth system model of intermediate complexity ECBilt-CLIO has been used for transient simulations of the last deglaciation and the Holocene. The forcing effects of the ice sheets, greenhouse gas concentrations, and orbital configurations are prescribed as time-varying boundary conditions. In this study two key aspects of the transient simulations are investigated, which are of broader relevance for long-term transient paleoclimate modeling: the effect of using accelerated boundary conditions and of uncertainties in the initial state. Simulations with nonaccelerated boundary conditions and an acceleration factor 10 were integrated. These simulations show that the acceleration can have a significant impact on the local climate history. In the outcropping regions of the high southern latitudes and the convective regions in the North Atlantic, the acceleration leads to damped and delayed temperature response to the boundary conditions. Furthermore, uncertainties in the initial state can strongly bias the climate trajectories in these areas over 500–700 model years. The affected oceanic regions are connected to the large heat capacities of the interior ocean, which cause a strong delay in the response to the forcing. Despite the shown difficulties with the acceleration technique, the accelerated simulations still reproduce the large-scale trend pattern of air temperatures during the Holocene from previous simulations with different models. The accelerated transient model simulation is compared with existing proxy time series at specific sites. The simulation results are in good agreement with those paleoproxies. It is shown that the transient simulations provide valuable insight into whether seasonal or annual signals are recorded in paleoproxies.
Abstract
The earth system model of intermediate complexity ECBilt-CLIO has been used for transient simulations of the last deglaciation and the Holocene. The forcing effects of the ice sheets, greenhouse gas concentrations, and orbital configurations are prescribed as time-varying boundary conditions. In this study two key aspects of the transient simulations are investigated, which are of broader relevance for long-term transient paleoclimate modeling: the effect of using accelerated boundary conditions and of uncertainties in the initial state. Simulations with nonaccelerated boundary conditions and an acceleration factor 10 were integrated. These simulations show that the acceleration can have a significant impact on the local climate history. In the outcropping regions of the high southern latitudes and the convective regions in the North Atlantic, the acceleration leads to damped and delayed temperature response to the boundary conditions. Furthermore, uncertainties in the initial state can strongly bias the climate trajectories in these areas over 500–700 model years. The affected oceanic regions are connected to the large heat capacities of the interior ocean, which cause a strong delay in the response to the forcing. Despite the shown difficulties with the acceleration technique, the accelerated simulations still reproduce the large-scale trend pattern of air temperatures during the Holocene from previous simulations with different models. The accelerated transient model simulation is compared with existing proxy time series at specific sites. The simulation results are in good agreement with those paleoproxies. It is shown that the transient simulations provide valuable insight into whether seasonal or annual signals are recorded in paleoproxies.
Abstract
This study examines the response of El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to massive volcanic eruptions in a suite of coupled general circulation model (CGCM) simulations utilizing the Community Climate System Model, version 3 (CCSM3). The authors find that the radiative forcing due to volcanic aerosols injected into the stratosphere induces a model climatic response that projects onto the ENSO mode and initially creates a La Niña event that peaks around the time the volcanic forcing peaks. The curl of the wind stress changes accompanying this volcanically forced equatorial region cooling acts to recharge the equatorial region heat. For weaker volcanic eruptions, this recharging results in an El Niño event about two seasons after the peak of the volcanic forcing. The results of the CCSM3 volcanic forcing experiments lead the authors to propose that the initial tropical Pacific Ocean response to volcanic forcing is determined by four different mechanisms—one process is the dynamical thermostat mechanism (the mean upwelling of anomalous temperature) and the other processes are related to the zonal equatorial gradients of the mean cloud albedo, Newtonian cooling, and mixed layer depth. The zonal gradient in CCSM3 set by both mixed layer depth and Newtonian cooling terms oppose the zonal sea surface temperature anomaly (SSTA) gradient produced by the dynamical thermostat and initially dominate the mixed layer zonal equatorial heat budget response. Applying this knowledge to a simple volcanically forced mixed layer equation using observed estimates of the spatially varying variables, the authors again find that the mixed layer depth and Newtonian cooling terms oppose and dominate the zonal SSTA gradient produced by the dynamical thermostat. This implies that the observed initial response to volcanic forcing should be La Niña–like not El Niño, as suggested by paleoclimate records.
Abstract
This study examines the response of El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to massive volcanic eruptions in a suite of coupled general circulation model (CGCM) simulations utilizing the Community Climate System Model, version 3 (CCSM3). The authors find that the radiative forcing due to volcanic aerosols injected into the stratosphere induces a model climatic response that projects onto the ENSO mode and initially creates a La Niña event that peaks around the time the volcanic forcing peaks. The curl of the wind stress changes accompanying this volcanically forced equatorial region cooling acts to recharge the equatorial region heat. For weaker volcanic eruptions, this recharging results in an El Niño event about two seasons after the peak of the volcanic forcing. The results of the CCSM3 volcanic forcing experiments lead the authors to propose that the initial tropical Pacific Ocean response to volcanic forcing is determined by four different mechanisms—one process is the dynamical thermostat mechanism (the mean upwelling of anomalous temperature) and the other processes are related to the zonal equatorial gradients of the mean cloud albedo, Newtonian cooling, and mixed layer depth. The zonal gradient in CCSM3 set by both mixed layer depth and Newtonian cooling terms oppose the zonal sea surface temperature anomaly (SSTA) gradient produced by the dynamical thermostat and initially dominate the mixed layer zonal equatorial heat budget response. Applying this knowledge to a simple volcanically forced mixed layer equation using observed estimates of the spatially varying variables, the authors again find that the mixed layer depth and Newtonian cooling terms oppose and dominate the zonal SSTA gradient produced by the dynamical thermostat. This implies that the observed initial response to volcanic forcing should be La Niña–like not El Niño, as suggested by paleoclimate records.
Abstract
A simplified box ocean model for the North Atlantic is used to study the influence of multiplicative short-term climate variability on the stability and long-term dynamics of the North Atlantic thermohaline circulation. A timescale separation between fast temperature and slow salinity fluctuations is used to decouple the dynamical equations resulting in a multiplicative stochastic differential equation for salinity. As a result the qualitative behavior and the stability of the thermohaline circulation become a function of the noise level. This can be understood in terms of the concept of noise-induced transitions. Furthermore, the role of nonvanishing noise autocorrelation times on the dynamics of the thermohaline circulation is investigated. Red noise temperature forcing generates new equilibria, which do not have a deterministic counterpart. This study suggests that noise-induced transitions might have climate relevance.
Abstract
A simplified box ocean model for the North Atlantic is used to study the influence of multiplicative short-term climate variability on the stability and long-term dynamics of the North Atlantic thermohaline circulation. A timescale separation between fast temperature and slow salinity fluctuations is used to decouple the dynamical equations resulting in a multiplicative stochastic differential equation for salinity. As a result the qualitative behavior and the stability of the thermohaline circulation become a function of the noise level. This can be understood in terms of the concept of noise-induced transitions. Furthermore, the role of nonvanishing noise autocorrelation times on the dynamics of the thermohaline circulation is investigated. Red noise temperature forcing generates new equilibria, which do not have a deterministic counterpart. This study suggests that noise-induced transitions might have climate relevance.
Abstract
The bifurcation behavior of a conceptual heat–salt oscillator model is analyzed by means of numerical continuation methods. A global (homoclinic) bifurcation acts as an organizing center for the dynamics of the simplified convective model. It originates from a codimension-2 bifurcation in an extended parameter space. Comparison with earlier work by Cessi shows that the intriguing stochastic thermohaline excitability can be understood from the bifurcation structure of the model. It is argued that global bifurcations may play a crucial role in determining long-term variability of the thermohaline circulation.
Abstract
The bifurcation behavior of a conceptual heat–salt oscillator model is analyzed by means of numerical continuation methods. A global (homoclinic) bifurcation acts as an organizing center for the dynamics of the simplified convective model. It originates from a codimension-2 bifurcation in an extended parameter space. Comparison with earlier work by Cessi shows that the intriguing stochastic thermohaline excitability can be understood from the bifurcation structure of the model. It is argued that global bifurcations may play a crucial role in determining long-term variability of the thermohaline circulation.
Abstract
Several climate field reconstruction methods assume stationarity between the leading patterns of variability identified during the instrumental calibration period and the reconstruction period. We examine how and to what extent this restrictive assumption may generate uncertainties in reconstructing past tropical Pacific climate variability. Based on the Last Millennium (850–2005 CE) ensemble simulations conducted with the Community Earth System Model and by developing a series of pseudoproxy reconstructions for different calibration periods, we find that the overall reconstruction skill for global and more regional-scale climate indices depends significantly on the magnitude of externally forced global mean temperature variability during the chosen calibration period. This effect strongly reduces the fidelity of reconstructions of decadal to centennial-scale tropical climate variability, associated with the interdecadal Pacific oscillation (IPO) and centennial-scale temperature shifts between the Medieval Climate Anomaly (MCA) and the Little Ice Age (LIA). In contrast, our pseudoproxy-based analysis demonstrates that reconstructions of interannual El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) variability are more robust and less affected by changes in calibration period.
Abstract
Several climate field reconstruction methods assume stationarity between the leading patterns of variability identified during the instrumental calibration period and the reconstruction period. We examine how and to what extent this restrictive assumption may generate uncertainties in reconstructing past tropical Pacific climate variability. Based on the Last Millennium (850–2005 CE) ensemble simulations conducted with the Community Earth System Model and by developing a series of pseudoproxy reconstructions for different calibration periods, we find that the overall reconstruction skill for global and more regional-scale climate indices depends significantly on the magnitude of externally forced global mean temperature variability during the chosen calibration period. This effect strongly reduces the fidelity of reconstructions of decadal to centennial-scale tropical climate variability, associated with the interdecadal Pacific oscillation (IPO) and centennial-scale temperature shifts between the Medieval Climate Anomaly (MCA) and the Little Ice Age (LIA). In contrast, our pseudoproxy-based analysis demonstrates that reconstructions of interannual El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) variability are more robust and less affected by changes in calibration period.
Abstract
A new mechanism is proposed that explains two key features of the observed El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon—its irregularity and decadal amplitude changes. Using a low-order ENSO model, the authors show that the nonlinearities in the tropical heat budget can lead to bursting behavior characterized by decadal occurrences of strong El Niño events. La Niña events are not affected, a feature that is also seen in ENSO observations. One key result of this analysis is that decadal variability in the Tropics can be generated without invoking extratropical processes or stochastic forcing. The El Niño bursting behavior simulated by the low-order ENSO model can be understood in terms of the concept of homoclinic and heteroclinic connections. It is shown that this new model for ENSO amplitude modulations and irregularity, although difficult to prove, might explain some features of ENSO dynamics seen in more complex climate models and the observations.
Abstract
A new mechanism is proposed that explains two key features of the observed El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon—its irregularity and decadal amplitude changes. Using a low-order ENSO model, the authors show that the nonlinearities in the tropical heat budget can lead to bursting behavior characterized by decadal occurrences of strong El Niño events. La Niña events are not affected, a feature that is also seen in ENSO observations. One key result of this analysis is that decadal variability in the Tropics can be generated without invoking extratropical processes or stochastic forcing. The El Niño bursting behavior simulated by the low-order ENSO model can be understood in terms of the concept of homoclinic and heteroclinic connections. It is shown that this new model for ENSO amplitude modulations and irregularity, although difficult to prove, might explain some features of ENSO dynamics seen in more complex climate models and the observations.
Abstract
The mechanisms leading to the onset of the African Humid Period (AHP) 14 500–11 000 yr ago are elucidated using two different climate–vegetation models in a suite of transient glacial–interglacial simulations covering the last 21 000 yr. A series of sensitivity experiments investigated three key mechanisms (local summer insolation and ice sheet evolution, vegetation–albedo–precipitation feedback, and CO2 increase via radiative forcing and fertilization) that control the climate–vegetation history over North Africa during the last glacial termination. The simulations showed that neither orbital forcing nor the remote forcing from the retreating ice sheets alone was able to trigger the rapid formation of the AHP. Only both forcing factors together can effectively lead to the formation of the AHP. The vegetation–albedo–precipitation feedback enhances the intensity of the monsoon and further accelerates the onset of the AHP. The experiments indicate that orbital forcing and vegetation–albedo–precipitation feedback alone are insufficient to trigger the rapid onset of the AHP. The sensitivity experiments further show that the increasing radiative forcing from rising CO2 concentrations had no significant impact on the temporal evolution of the African monsoon during the last deglaciation. However, the fertilization effect of CO2 is important for the terrestrial carbon storage. The modeling results are discussed and compared with paleoproxy records of the African monsoon system. It is concluded that the model results presented here do not lend support to the notion that simple insolation thresholds govern the abrupt transitions of North African vegetation during the early to middle Holocene.
Abstract
The mechanisms leading to the onset of the African Humid Period (AHP) 14 500–11 000 yr ago are elucidated using two different climate–vegetation models in a suite of transient glacial–interglacial simulations covering the last 21 000 yr. A series of sensitivity experiments investigated three key mechanisms (local summer insolation and ice sheet evolution, vegetation–albedo–precipitation feedback, and CO2 increase via radiative forcing and fertilization) that control the climate–vegetation history over North Africa during the last glacial termination. The simulations showed that neither orbital forcing nor the remote forcing from the retreating ice sheets alone was able to trigger the rapid formation of the AHP. Only both forcing factors together can effectively lead to the formation of the AHP. The vegetation–albedo–precipitation feedback enhances the intensity of the monsoon and further accelerates the onset of the AHP. The experiments indicate that orbital forcing and vegetation–albedo–precipitation feedback alone are insufficient to trigger the rapid onset of the AHP. The sensitivity experiments further show that the increasing radiative forcing from rising CO2 concentrations had no significant impact on the temporal evolution of the African monsoon during the last deglaciation. However, the fertilization effect of CO2 is important for the terrestrial carbon storage. The modeling results are discussed and compared with paleoproxy records of the African monsoon system. It is concluded that the model results presented here do not lend support to the notion that simple insolation thresholds govern the abrupt transitions of North African vegetation during the early to middle Holocene.
Abstract
Transient climate model simulations covering the last 21 000 yr reveal that orbitally driven insolation changes in the Southern Hemisphere, combined with a rise in atmospheric pCO2, were sufficient to jump-start the deglacial warming around Antarctica without direct Northern Hemispheric triggers. Analyses of sensitivity experiments forced with only one external forcing component (greenhouse gases, ice-sheet forcing, or orbital forcing) demonstrate that austral spring insolation changes triggered an early retreat of Southern Ocean sea ice starting around 19–18 ka BP. The associated sea ice–albedo feedback and the subsequent increase of atmospheric CO2 concentrations helped to further accelerate the deglacial warming in the Southern Hemisphere. Implications for the interpretation of Southern Hemispheric paleoproxy records are discussed.
Abstract
Transient climate model simulations covering the last 21 000 yr reveal that orbitally driven insolation changes in the Southern Hemisphere, combined with a rise in atmospheric pCO2, were sufficient to jump-start the deglacial warming around Antarctica without direct Northern Hemispheric triggers. Analyses of sensitivity experiments forced with only one external forcing component (greenhouse gases, ice-sheet forcing, or orbital forcing) demonstrate that austral spring insolation changes triggered an early retreat of Southern Ocean sea ice starting around 19–18 ka BP. The associated sea ice–albedo feedback and the subsequent increase of atmospheric CO2 concentrations helped to further accelerate the deglacial warming in the Southern Hemisphere. Implications for the interpretation of Southern Hemispheric paleoproxy records are discussed.
Abstract
Global sea level rise due to the thermal expansion of the warming oceans and freshwater input from melting glaciers and ice sheets is threatening to inundate low-lying islands and coastlines worldwide. At present the global mean sea level rises at 3.1 ± 0.7 mm yr−1 with an accelerating tendency. However, the magnitude of recent decadal sea level trends varies greatly spatially, attaining values of up to 10 mm yr−1 in some areas of the western tropical Pacific. Identifying the causes of recent regional sea level trends and understanding the patterns of future projected sea level change is of crucial importance. Using a wind-forced simplified dynamical ocean model, the study shows that the regional features of recent decadal and multidecadal sea level trends in the tropical Indo-Pacific can be attributed to changes in the prevailing wind regimes. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that within an ensemble of 10 state-of-the-art coupled general circulation models, forced by increasing atmospheric CO2 concentrations over the next century, wind-induced redistributions of upper-ocean water play a key role in establishing the spatial characteristics of projected regional sea level rise. Wind-related changes in near-surface mass and heat convergence near the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, Kiribati, the Cook Islands, and French Polynesia oppose—but cannot cancel—the regional signal of global mean sea level rise.
Abstract
Global sea level rise due to the thermal expansion of the warming oceans and freshwater input from melting glaciers and ice sheets is threatening to inundate low-lying islands and coastlines worldwide. At present the global mean sea level rises at 3.1 ± 0.7 mm yr−1 with an accelerating tendency. However, the magnitude of recent decadal sea level trends varies greatly spatially, attaining values of up to 10 mm yr−1 in some areas of the western tropical Pacific. Identifying the causes of recent regional sea level trends and understanding the patterns of future projected sea level change is of crucial importance. Using a wind-forced simplified dynamical ocean model, the study shows that the regional features of recent decadal and multidecadal sea level trends in the tropical Indo-Pacific can be attributed to changes in the prevailing wind regimes. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that within an ensemble of 10 state-of-the-art coupled general circulation models, forced by increasing atmospheric CO2 concentrations over the next century, wind-induced redistributions of upper-ocean water play a key role in establishing the spatial characteristics of projected regional sea level rise. Wind-related changes in near-surface mass and heat convergence near the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, Kiribati, the Cook Islands, and French Polynesia oppose—but cannot cancel—the regional signal of global mean sea level rise.
Abstract
The role of mean and stochastic freshwater forcing on the generation of millennial-scale climate variability in the North Atlantic is studied using a low-order coupled atmosphere–ocean–sea ice model. It is shown that millennial-scale oscillations can be excited stochastically, when the North Atlantic Ocean is fresh enough. This finding is used in order to interpret the aftermath of massive iceberg surges (Heinrich events) in the glacial North Atlantic, which are characterized by an excitation of Dansgaard–Oeschger events. Based on model results, it is hypothesized that Heinrich events trigger Dansgaard–Oeschger cycles and that furthermore the occurrence of Heinrich events is dependent on the accumulated climatic effect of a series of Dansgaard–Oeschger events. This scenario leads to a coupled ocean–ice sheet oscillation that shares many similarities with the Bond cycle. Further sensitivity experiments reveal that the timescale of the oscillations can be decomposed into stochastic, linear, and nonlinear deterministic components. A schematic bifurcation diagram is used to compare theoretical results with paleoclimatic data.
Abstract
The role of mean and stochastic freshwater forcing on the generation of millennial-scale climate variability in the North Atlantic is studied using a low-order coupled atmosphere–ocean–sea ice model. It is shown that millennial-scale oscillations can be excited stochastically, when the North Atlantic Ocean is fresh enough. This finding is used in order to interpret the aftermath of massive iceberg surges (Heinrich events) in the glacial North Atlantic, which are characterized by an excitation of Dansgaard–Oeschger events. Based on model results, it is hypothesized that Heinrich events trigger Dansgaard–Oeschger cycles and that furthermore the occurrence of Heinrich events is dependent on the accumulated climatic effect of a series of Dansgaard–Oeschger events. This scenario leads to a coupled ocean–ice sheet oscillation that shares many similarities with the Bond cycle. Further sensitivity experiments reveal that the timescale of the oscillations can be decomposed into stochastic, linear, and nonlinear deterministic components. A schematic bifurcation diagram is used to compare theoretical results with paleoclimatic data.
