Abstract

A parameterization package for cloud-radiation interaction is incorporated into a spectral general circulation model (GCM). Fractional cloud amount is predicted quasi-empirically; cloud optical depth is specified for warm clouds and anvil cirrus, but depends on temperature for other subfreezing clouds; the long- and shortwave cloud optical properties are linked to the cloud optical depth. The model's time-mean clouds and its radiative, thermal, and dynamical response to cloud-radiation interaction are investigated for the extended forecast range, primarily by performing two sets of 30-day integrations from real initial conditions for three Northern Hemisphere (NH) winter and three NH summer cases: (i) CLDRADI, with cloud-radiation interaction; and (ii) LONDON, with this GCM's traditional specification of climatological zonal-mean cloud amount and global-mean cloud optical properties.

The 30-day mean CLDRADI fields of total and high cloud amount and corresponding outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) fields are plausible in many respects, especially in the tropics where the latter exhibit South Pacific convergence zone (SPCZ)-like and some intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)-like features, in qualitative agreement with Nimbus-7 and Earth Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE) observations. Also, the predicted monthly mean OLR anomalies (relative to model climatology) respond to interannual variations in sea surface temperature. Cloud amount and cloud optical depth are apparently underestimated, however, over the higher-latitude oceans, especially over the Southern Hemisphere (SH) circumpolar low pressure belt and Antarctica. The zonal mean bias in shortwave and net radiation remains large at high latitudes in the summer hemisphere, despite the improved longitudinal structure in the tropics.

Cloud-radiation interaction elicits a cirrus warming response, which reduces the tropical upper-tropospheric cold bias by ∼1–2 K. Over Antarctica, the warm bias in SH summer and cold bias in SH winter are both considerably reduced. During NH winter, the tropical upper troposphere experiences a significant westerly acceleration, including a sign reversal of the zonal-mean zonal wind. By being more conducive to meridional propagation, CLDRADI's tropical westerlies may contribute to the amplification of the quasi-stationary planetary waves in the SH summer extratropics. Otherwise, the impact of cloud-radiation interaction on extratropical geopotential height is generally minimal at extended range.

Abstract

Numerical simulation experiments are performed with a 9-level global general circulation model to help determine how much wind data in the tropics are needed for the reconstruction of meteorological fields. Prediction runs are updated every 12 hr with hypothetical data generated from the same model.

It is found that the asymptotic root mean square (rms) wind errors in the tropics, particularly in the 11S-IIN “equatorial” latitude belt, fail to meet the GARP data requirements for the FGGE if surface pressure and temperature data alone are used for updating. The addition of tropical wind data at just two vertical levels leads to a significant, but insufficient, reduction of rrns wind errors within “tropics” (26S-26N); the largest errors remain near the equator. However, these errors become acceptably small if wind data are inserted at all 9 levels within the equatorial region. Another result is that insertion of tropical wind data at just two levels has a sizable influence upon wind errors even in the extratropics.

A critique of some implicit assumptions made in simulation experiments of the type we have performed is included.

Abstract

The seasonal cycle of SST observed in the eastern equatorial Pacific is poorly simulated by many ocean–atmosphere coupled GCMs. This deficiency may be partly due to an incorrect prediction of tropical marine stratocumulus (MSc). To explore this hypothesis, two basic multiyear simulations have been performed using a coupled GCM with seasonally varying solar radiation. The model’s cloud prediction scheme, which underpredicts tropical marine stratocumulus, is used for all clouds in the control run. In contrast, in the “ISCCP” run, the climatological monthly mean low cloud fraction is specified over the open ocean, utilizing C2 data from the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP). In this manner, the treatment of MSc clouds, including the annual cycle, is more realistic than in previous sensitivity studies.

Robust surface and subsurface thermodynamical and dynamical responses to the specified MSc are found in the Tropics, especially near the equator. In the annual mean, the equatorial cold tongue extends farther west and intensifies, while the east–west SST gradient is enhanced. A double SST maximum flanking the cold tongue becomes asymmetric about the equator. The SST annual cycle in the eastern equatorial Pacific strengthens, and the equatorial SST seasonal anomalies migrate farther westward. MSc-induced local shortwave radiative cooling enhances dynamical cooling associated with the southeast trades. The surface meridional wind stress in the extreme eastern equatorial Pacific remains southerly all year, while the surface zonal wind stress and equatorial upwelling intensify, as does the seasonal cycle of evaporation, in better agreement with observation. Within the ocean, the thermocline steepens and the Equatorial Undercurrent intensifies. When the low clouds are entirely removed, the SST warms by about 5.5 K in the western and central tropical Pacific, relative to “ISCCP,” and the model’s SST bias there reverses sign.

ENSO-like interannual variability with a characteristic timescale of 3–5 yr is found in all simulations, though its amplitude varies. The “ISCCP” equatorial cold tongue inhibits the eastward progression of ENSO-like warm events east of the date line. When the specified low cloud fraction in “ISCCP” is reduced by 20%, the interannual variability amplifies somewhat and the coupled model responds more like a delayed oscillator. The apparent sensitivity in the equatorial Pacific to a 20% relative change in low cloud fraction may have some cautionary implications for seasonal prediction by coupled GCMs.

Abstract

The sensitivity of a coupled general circulation model (CGCM) to tropical marine stratocumulus (MSc) clouds and low-level clouds over the tropical land is examined. The hypothesis that low-level clouds play an important role in determining the strength and position of the Walker circulation and also on the strength and phase of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is studied using a Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL) experimental prediction CGCM. In the Tropics, a GFDL experimental prediction CGCM exhibits a strong bias in the western Pacific where an eastward shift in the ascending branch of the Walker circulation diminishes the strength and expanse of the sea surface temperature (SST) warm pool, thereby reducing the east–west SST gradient, and effectively weakening the trade winds. These model features are evidence of a poorly simulated Walker circulation, one that mirrors a “perpetual El Niño” state. One possible factor contributing to this bias is a poor simulation of MSc clouds in the eastern equatorial Pacific (which are essential to a proper SST annual cycle). Another possible contributing factor might be radiative heating biases over the land in the Tropics, which could, in turn, have a significant impact on the preferred locations of maximum convection in the Tropics. As a means of studying the sensitivity of a CGCM to both MSc clouds and to varied radiative forcing over the land in the Tropics, low-level clouds obtained from the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) are prescribed. The experiment sets consist of one where clouds are fully predicted, another where ISCCP low-level clouds are prescribed over the oceans alone, and a third where ISCCP low-level clouds are prescribed both over the global oceans and over the tropical landmasses. A set of ten 12-month hindcasts is performed for each experiment.

The results show that the combined prescription of interannually varying global ocean and climatological tropical land low-level clouds into the CGCM results in a much improved simulation of the Walker circulation over the Pacific Ocean. The improvement to the tropical circulation was also notable over the Indian and Atlantic basins as well. These improvements in circulation led to a considerable increase in ENSO hindcast skill in the first year by the CGCM. These enhancements were a function of both the presence of MSc clouds over the tropical oceans and were also due to the more realistic positioning of the regions of maximum convection in the Tropics. This latter model feature was essentially a response to the change in radiative forcing over tropical landmasses associated with a reduction in low cloud fraction and optical depth when ISCCP low-level clouds were prescribed there. These results not only underscore the importance of a reasonable representation of MSc clouds but also point out the considerable impact that radiative forcing over the tropical landmasses has on the simulated position of the Walker circulation and also on ENSO forecasting.

Abstract

Version 1 of the Community Earth System Model, in the configuration where its full carbon cycle is enabled, is introduced and documented. In this configuration, the terrestrial biogeochemical model, which includes carbon–nitrogen dynamics and is present in earlier model versions, is coupled to an ocean biogeochemical model and atmospheric CO₂ tracers. The authors provide a description of the model, detail how preindustrial-control and twentieth-century experiments were initialized and forced, and examine the behavior of the carbon cycle in those experiments. They examine how sea- and land-to-air CO₂ fluxes contribute to the increase of atmospheric CO₂ in the twentieth century, analyze how atmospheric CO₂ and its surface fluxes vary on interannual time scales, including how they respond to ENSO, and describe the seasonal cycle of atmospheric CO₂ and its surface fluxes. While the model broadly reproduces observed aspects of the carbon cycle, there are several notable biases, including having too large of an increase in atmospheric CO₂ over the twentieth century and too small of a seasonal cycle of atmospheric CO₂ in the Northern Hemisphere. The biases are related to a weak response of the carbon cycle to climatic variations on interannual and seasonal time scales and to twentieth-century anthropogenic forcings, including rising CO₂, land-use change, and atmospheric deposition of nitrogen.

Abstract

The Global Land–Atmosphere Coupling Experiment (GLACE) is a model intercomparison study focusing on a typically neglected yet critical element of numerical weather and climate modeling: land–atmosphere coupling strength, or the degree to which anomalies in land surface state (e.g., soil moisture) can affect rainfall generation and other atmospheric processes. The 12 AGCM groups participating in GLACE performed a series of simple numerical experiments that allow the objective quantification of this element for boreal summer. The derived coupling strengths vary widely. Some similarity, however, is found in the spatial patterns generated by the models, with enough similarity to pinpoint multimodel “hot spots” of land–atmosphere coupling. For boreal summer, such hot spots for precipitation and temperature are found over large regions of Africa, central North America, and India; a hot spot for temperature is also found over eastern China. The design of the GLACE simulations are described in full detail so that any interested modeling group can repeat them easily and thereby place their model’s coupling strength within the broad range of those documented here.

Abstract

The 12 weather and climate models participating in the Global Land–Atmosphere Coupling Experiment (GLACE) show both a wide variation in the strength of land–atmosphere coupling and some intriguing commonalities. In this paper, the causes of variations in coupling strength—both the geographic variations within a given model and the model-to-model differences—are addressed. The ability of soil moisture to affect precipitation is examined in two stages, namely, the ability of the soil moisture to affect evaporation, and the ability of evaporation to affect precipitation. Most of the differences between the models and within a given model are found to be associated with the first stage—an evaporation rate that varies strongly and consistently with soil moisture tends to lead to a higher coupling strength. The first-stage differences reflect identifiable differences in model parameterization and model climate. Intermodel differences in the evaporation–precipitation connection, however, also play a key role.

Abstract

The Community Climate System Model version 3 (CCSM3) has recently been developed and released to the climate community. CCSM3 is a coupled climate model with components representing the atmosphere, ocean, sea ice, and land surface connected by a flux coupler. CCSM3 is designed to produce realistic simulations over a wide range of spatial resolutions, enabling inexpensive simulations lasting several millennia or detailed studies of continental-scale dynamics, variability, and climate change. This paper will show results from the configuration used for climate-change simulations with a T85 grid for the atmosphere and land and a grid with approximately 1° resolution for the ocean and sea ice. The new system incorporates several significant improvements in the physical parameterizations. The enhancements in the model physics are designed to reduce or eliminate several systematic biases in the mean climate produced by previous editions of CCSM. These include new treatments of cloud processes, aerosol radiative forcing, land–atmosphere fluxes, ocean mixed layer processes, and sea ice dynamics. There are significant improvements in the sea ice thickness, polar radiation budgets, tropical sea surface temperatures, and cloud radiative effects. CCSM3 can produce stable climate simulations of millennial duration without ad hoc adjustments to the fluxes exchanged among the component models. Nonetheless, there are still systematic biases in the ocean–atmosphere fluxes in coastal regions west of continents, the spectrum of ENSO variability, the spatial distribution of precipitation in the tropical oceans, and continental precipitation and surface air temperatures. Work is under way to extend CCSM to a more accurate and comprehensive model of the earth's climate system.

Abstract

The second phase of the Global Land–Atmosphere Coupling Experiment (GLACE-2) is a multi-institutional numerical modeling experiment focused on quantifying, for boreal summer, the subseasonal (out to two months) forecast skill for precipitation and air temperature that can be derived from the realistic initialization of land surface states, notably soil moisture. An overview of the experiment and model behavior at the global scale is described here, along with a determination and characterization of multimodel “consensus” skill. The models show modest but significant skill in predicting air temperatures, especially where the rain gauge network is dense. Given that precipitation is the chief driver of soil moisture, and thereby assuming that rain gauge density is a reasonable proxy for the adequacy of the observational network contributing to soil moisture initialization, this result indeed highlights the potential contribution of enhanced observations to prediction. Land-derived precipitation forecast skill is much weaker than that for air temperature. The skill for predicting air temperature, and to some extent precipitation, increases with the magnitude of the initial soil moisture anomaly. GLACE-2 results are examined further to provide insight into the asymmetric impacts of wet and dry soil moisture initialization on skill.

Abstract

The formulation and simulation characteristics of two new global coupled climate models developed at NOAA's Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL) are described. The models were designed to simulate atmospheric and oceanic climate and variability from the diurnal time scale through multicentury climate change, given our computational constraints. In particular, an important goal was to use the same model for both experimental seasonal to interannual forecasting and the study of multicentury global climate change, and this goal has been achieved.

Two versions of the coupled model are described, called CM2.0 and CM2.1. The versions differ primarily in the dynamical core used in the atmospheric component, along with the cloud tuning and some details of the land and ocean components. For both coupled models, the resolution of the land and atmospheric components is 2° latitude × 2.5° longitude; the atmospheric model has 24 vertical levels. The ocean resolution is 1° in latitude and longitude, with meridional resolution equatorward of 30° becoming progressively finer, such that the meridional resolution is 1/3° at the equator. There are 50 vertical levels in the ocean, with 22 evenly spaced levels within the top 220 m. The ocean component has poles over North America and Eurasia to avoid polar filtering. Neither coupled model employs flux adjustments.

The control simulations have stable, realistic climates when integrated over multiple centuries. Both models have simulations of ENSO that are substantially improved relative to previous GFDL coupled models. The CM2.0 model has been further evaluated as an ENSO forecast model and has good skill (CM2.1 has not been evaluated as an ENSO forecast model). Generally reduced temperature and salinity biases exist in CM2.1 relative to CM2.0. These reductions are associated with 1) improved simulations of surface wind stress in CM2.1 and associated changes in oceanic gyre circulations; 2) changes in cloud tuning and the land model, both of which act to increase the net surface shortwave radiation in CM2.1, thereby reducing an overall cold bias present in CM2.0; and 3) a reduction of ocean lateral viscosity in the extratropics in CM2.1, which reduces sea ice biases in the North Atlantic.

Both models have been used to conduct a suite of climate change simulations for the 2007 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) assessment report and are able to simulate the main features of the observed warming of the twentieth century. The climate sensitivities of the CM2.0 and CM2.1 models are 2.9 and 3.4 K, respectively. These sensitivities are defined by coupling the atmospheric components of CM2.0 and CM2.1 to a slab ocean model and allowing the model to come into equilibrium with a doubling of atmospheric CO₂. The output from a suite of integrations conducted with these models is freely available online (see http://nomads.gfdl.noaa.gov/).