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Abstract
The design of an automated radiometer traversing system used to measure nocturnal longwave surface radiative budgets in a model urban canyon is described. The system allows two net radiometers to be traversed around the perimeter of a canyon cross section in order to resolve the spatial distribution of net radiation without necessitating extensive arrays of instruments. The system has been used to study the temporal and spatial variations of radiation and near surface air temperature within a model urban canyon and to validate a numerical canyon radiation model. Considerations affecting the placement of the sensors with respect to the canyon surfaces are detailed. The traversing speed is determined using an analysis of sensor response to anticipated spatial changes in radiation across canyon surfaces. Test results confirm the design parameters.
Abstract
The design of an automated radiometer traversing system used to measure nocturnal longwave surface radiative budgets in a model urban canyon is described. The system allows two net radiometers to be traversed around the perimeter of a canyon cross section in order to resolve the spatial distribution of net radiation without necessitating extensive arrays of instruments. The system has been used to study the temporal and spatial variations of radiation and near surface air temperature within a model urban canyon and to validate a numerical canyon radiation model. Considerations affecting the placement of the sensors with respect to the canyon surfaces are detailed. The traversing speed is determined using an analysis of sensor response to anticipated spatial changes in radiation across canyon surfaces. Test results confirm the design parameters.
Abstract
An observation program using ground and airborne thermal infrared radiometers is used to estimate the surface temperature of urban areas, taking into account the total active surface area. The authors call this the complete urban surface temperature. This temperature is not restricted by the viewing biases inherent in remote sensors used to estimate surface temperature over rough surfaces such as cities. Two methods to estimate the complete surface temperature are presented. Results for three different land-use areas in the city of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, show significant differences exist between the complete, nadir, and off-nadir airborne estimates of urban surface temperature during daytime. For the sites and times studied, the complete surface temperature is shown to agree with airborne off-nadir estimates of the apparent surface temperature of the most shaded walls. Some implications of using the complete surface temperature to estimate screen level air temperature and to calculate surface sensible heat flux are given.
Abstract
An observation program using ground and airborne thermal infrared radiometers is used to estimate the surface temperature of urban areas, taking into account the total active surface area. The authors call this the complete urban surface temperature. This temperature is not restricted by the viewing biases inherent in remote sensors used to estimate surface temperature over rough surfaces such as cities. Two methods to estimate the complete surface temperature are presented. Results for three different land-use areas in the city of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, show significant differences exist between the complete, nadir, and off-nadir airborne estimates of urban surface temperature during daytime. For the sites and times studied, the complete surface temperature is shown to agree with airborne off-nadir estimates of the apparent surface temperature of the most shaded walls. Some implications of using the complete surface temperature to estimate screen level air temperature and to calculate surface sensible heat flux are given.
Abstract
Sensible heat fluxes over a light industrial area in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, are analyzed from observed tower fluxes and modeled using a bulk heat transfer approach. The bulk transfer models are initialized using remotely sensed surface temperatures from both airborne and ground-based observing platforms. The remotely sensed surface temperature, in conjunction with a surface database, is used to create area-weighted temperature estimates representative of the complete urban surface. Sensitivity analyses of the various surface temperature estimates are performed. Estimates of kB −1, the ratio of roughness length of momentum to heat, for this area are in general agreement with theoretical estimates for bluff-rough surfaces and are larger than those documented for vegetated and agricultural surfaces. Back-calculated values do vary depending on the method used to determine surface temperature but vary more with the time of day. Empirical relations derived previously for vegetated surfaces are shown to agree well with the results for a dry urban environment. Approaches based on microscale variability in temperature fields are problematic.
Abstract
Sensible heat fluxes over a light industrial area in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, are analyzed from observed tower fluxes and modeled using a bulk heat transfer approach. The bulk transfer models are initialized using remotely sensed surface temperatures from both airborne and ground-based observing platforms. The remotely sensed surface temperature, in conjunction with a surface database, is used to create area-weighted temperature estimates representative of the complete urban surface. Sensitivity analyses of the various surface temperature estimates are performed. Estimates of kB −1, the ratio of roughness length of momentum to heat, for this area are in general agreement with theoretical estimates for bluff-rough surfaces and are larger than those documented for vegetated and agricultural surfaces. Back-calculated values do vary depending on the method used to determine surface temperature but vary more with the time of day. Empirical relations derived previously for vegetated surfaces are shown to agree well with the results for a dry urban environment. Approaches based on microscale variability in temperature fields are problematic.
Abstract
The paper addresses the question of whether the modeling practice of summing separate land-cover tiles to give urban fluxes at the neighborhood scale has merit. A central-city site in Basel, Switzerland, was instrumented to measure turbulent sensible heat fluxes QH from the two main land-cover types (roofs and canyons) separately and from the whole neighborhood. Path-averaged QH values were measured in the roughness sublayer (RSL) using scintillometry, and the spatially averaged QH neighborhood-scale flux was measured in the inertial sublayer (ISL) by an eddy-covariance system. The roof and canyon flux results are combined and weighted according to the respective plan-area abundance of each to give an estimated value of the neighborhood flux. The results show that this “bottom up” approach underestimates the measured ISL values by about 25% when averaged across all periods and wind directions. This finding led to consideration of possible errors from instrumentation, inappropriate turbulent source areas, failure to sample representative surfaces, and inability to fully capture RSL heat exchange. Sorting data by the two main wind directions revealed significant differences. The measured fluxes in the ISL and across the canyon top depend little upon wind direction, but daytime roof values show a marked sensitivity to wind direction. Qualitative analysis suggests this might be caused by systematic controls such as solar angle, site morphometry, and observational setup. The comparison of bottom up versus ISL is inconclusive; in some conditions agreement appears promising, and in others it does not. The question has not been proven or disproven. It may be too ambitious to test the concept at a real-world site.
Abstract
The paper addresses the question of whether the modeling practice of summing separate land-cover tiles to give urban fluxes at the neighborhood scale has merit. A central-city site in Basel, Switzerland, was instrumented to measure turbulent sensible heat fluxes QH from the two main land-cover types (roofs and canyons) separately and from the whole neighborhood. Path-averaged QH values were measured in the roughness sublayer (RSL) using scintillometry, and the spatially averaged QH neighborhood-scale flux was measured in the inertial sublayer (ISL) by an eddy-covariance system. The roof and canyon flux results are combined and weighted according to the respective plan-area abundance of each to give an estimated value of the neighborhood flux. The results show that this “bottom up” approach underestimates the measured ISL values by about 25% when averaged across all periods and wind directions. This finding led to consideration of possible errors from instrumentation, inappropriate turbulent source areas, failure to sample representative surfaces, and inability to fully capture RSL heat exchange. Sorting data by the two main wind directions revealed significant differences. The measured fluxes in the ISL and across the canyon top depend little upon wind direction, but daytime roof values show a marked sensitivity to wind direction. Qualitative analysis suggests this might be caused by systematic controls such as solar angle, site morphometry, and observational setup. The comparison of bottom up versus ISL is inconclusive; in some conditions agreement appears promising, and in others it does not. The question has not been proven or disproven. It may be too ambitious to test the concept at a real-world site.
Abstract
The relative performance of four independent methods to estimate the magnitude and diurnal behavior of net heat storage fluxes (ΔQS ) in a city center is assessed. This heat flux is a significant but understudied component of the urban surface energy balance (SEB). Direct measurement of this SEB term at the local scale (horizontal length scale ∼102–104 m) is practically unattainable primarily because of the complex array of materials and the three-dimensionality of urban systems. Results of an 8-day summertime observational study at a site in the center of Marseille, France, are presented. This locale is an ideal environment for such research because of the warm, dry climate (hence the SEB is dominated by sensible heat exchanges) and the high density of tall buildings with thick walls (hence it has a large thermal mass that favors heat storage as a component of the SEB). Estimates of ΔQS derived as residuals in the SEB, after the remaining terms are measured directly, (termed RES) are compared with those calculated from a parameterization scheme [objective hysteresis model (OHM)], a local-scale numerical model [Town Energy Balance model (TEB)], and a bulk heat transfer method [thermal mass scheme (TMS)]. Inputs to the methods include observed meteorological data and morphometric properties of the urban site. All approaches yield a similar diurnal course. The OHM and TEB methods tend to slightly overestimate storage uptake by day when compared with the RES, whereas TMS slightly underestimates it. All methods underestimate heat storage release at night when compared with RES and show some sensitivity to wind speed, especially above about 5 m s−1. OHM estimates perform satisfactorily in the mean but miss short-term variability and are poor at night. TEB simulations show the best agreement with RES results, particularly at night. TMS values are comparable to those from the other methods, but its extensive input requirements render it almost impractical. Overall, the convergence of results is reassuring but the lack of a standard for quantifying heat storage and the spread of results mean this term remains a source of imprecision in urban energy balance measurement and modeling.
Abstract
The relative performance of four independent methods to estimate the magnitude and diurnal behavior of net heat storage fluxes (ΔQS ) in a city center is assessed. This heat flux is a significant but understudied component of the urban surface energy balance (SEB). Direct measurement of this SEB term at the local scale (horizontal length scale ∼102–104 m) is practically unattainable primarily because of the complex array of materials and the three-dimensionality of urban systems. Results of an 8-day summertime observational study at a site in the center of Marseille, France, are presented. This locale is an ideal environment for such research because of the warm, dry climate (hence the SEB is dominated by sensible heat exchanges) and the high density of tall buildings with thick walls (hence it has a large thermal mass that favors heat storage as a component of the SEB). Estimates of ΔQS derived as residuals in the SEB, after the remaining terms are measured directly, (termed RES) are compared with those calculated from a parameterization scheme [objective hysteresis model (OHM)], a local-scale numerical model [Town Energy Balance model (TEB)], and a bulk heat transfer method [thermal mass scheme (TMS)]. Inputs to the methods include observed meteorological data and morphometric properties of the urban site. All approaches yield a similar diurnal course. The OHM and TEB methods tend to slightly overestimate storage uptake by day when compared with the RES, whereas TMS slightly underestimates it. All methods underestimate heat storage release at night when compared with RES and show some sensitivity to wind speed, especially above about 5 m s−1. OHM estimates perform satisfactorily in the mean but miss short-term variability and are poor at night. TEB simulations show the best agreement with RES results, particularly at night. TMS values are comparable to those from the other methods, but its extensive input requirements render it almost impractical. Overall, the convergence of results is reassuring but the lack of a standard for quantifying heat storage and the spread of results mean this term remains a source of imprecision in urban energy balance measurement and modeling.
Abstract
Within the framework of a large urban meteorology program recently launched in Canada, the Montreal Urban Snow Experiment (MUSE) campaign has been conducted in order to document the thermoradiative exchanges in a densely built-up area of Montreal in late winter and spring conditions. The targeted period is of particular scientific interest because it covers the transition period from a mainly snow-covered urban environment to a mainly snow-free environment. The campaign is based on four weeks of observations from 17 March to 14 April 2005. It couples automatic and continuous measurements of radiation and turbulent fluxes, radiative surface temperatures, and air temperature and humidity with manual observations performed during intensive observation periods to supplement the surface temperature observations and to characterize the snow properties. The footprints of radiation and turbulent flux measurements are computed using the surface–sensor–sun urban model and the flux-source area model, respectively. The analysis of the radiometer footprint underscores the difficulty of correctly locating this type of instrument in urban environments, so that the sensor sees a representative combination of the urban and nonurban surfaces. Here, the alley contribution to the upward radiation tends to be overestimated to the detriment of the road contribution. The turbulent footprints cover homogeneous zones in terms of surface characteristics, whatever the wind direction. The initial analysis of the energy balance displays the predominance of the residual term (Q Res = Q* − QH − QE ) in comparison with the turbulent sensible (QH ) and latent (QE ) heat fluxes, since its daytime contribution exceeds 50% of the net radiation (Q*). The investigation of energy balances observed at the beginning and at the end of the experiment (i.e., with and without snow) also indicates that the snow plays a significant role in the flux partitioning and the daily pattern of fluxes. Without snow, the energy balance is characteristic of energy balances that have been already observed in densely built-up areas, notably because of the hysteresis observed for Q Res and QH in relation to Q* and because of the high contribution of Q Res, which includes the effect of heat storage inside the urban structures. With snow, the flux partitioning is modified by the snowmelt process leading to contributions of the residual term and latent heat flux, which are larger than in the case without snow to the detriment of the sensible heat flux.
Abstract
Within the framework of a large urban meteorology program recently launched in Canada, the Montreal Urban Snow Experiment (MUSE) campaign has been conducted in order to document the thermoradiative exchanges in a densely built-up area of Montreal in late winter and spring conditions. The targeted period is of particular scientific interest because it covers the transition period from a mainly snow-covered urban environment to a mainly snow-free environment. The campaign is based on four weeks of observations from 17 March to 14 April 2005. It couples automatic and continuous measurements of radiation and turbulent fluxes, radiative surface temperatures, and air temperature and humidity with manual observations performed during intensive observation periods to supplement the surface temperature observations and to characterize the snow properties. The footprints of radiation and turbulent flux measurements are computed using the surface–sensor–sun urban model and the flux-source area model, respectively. The analysis of the radiometer footprint underscores the difficulty of correctly locating this type of instrument in urban environments, so that the sensor sees a representative combination of the urban and nonurban surfaces. Here, the alley contribution to the upward radiation tends to be overestimated to the detriment of the road contribution. The turbulent footprints cover homogeneous zones in terms of surface characteristics, whatever the wind direction. The initial analysis of the energy balance displays the predominance of the residual term (Q Res = Q* − QH − QE ) in comparison with the turbulent sensible (QH ) and latent (QE ) heat fluxes, since its daytime contribution exceeds 50% of the net radiation (Q*). The investigation of energy balances observed at the beginning and at the end of the experiment (i.e., with and without snow) also indicates that the snow plays a significant role in the flux partitioning and the daily pattern of fluxes. Without snow, the energy balance is characteristic of energy balances that have been already observed in densely built-up areas, notably because of the hysteresis observed for Q Res and QH in relation to Q* and because of the high contribution of Q Res, which includes the effect of heat storage inside the urban structures. With snow, the flux partitioning is modified by the snowmelt process leading to contributions of the residual term and latent heat flux, which are larger than in the case without snow to the detriment of the sensible heat flux.
Abstract
The Pan and Parapan American Games (PA15) are the third largest sporting event in the world and were held in Toronto in the summer of 2015 (10–26 July and 7–15 August). This was used as an opportunity to coordinate and showcase existing innovative research and development activities related to weather, air quality (AQ), and health at Environment and Climate Change Canada. New observational technologies included weather stations based on compact sensors that were augmented with black globe thermometers, two Doppler lidars, two wave buoys, a 3D lightning mapping array, two new AQ stations, and low-cost AQ and ultraviolet sensors. These were supplemented by observations from other agencies, four mobile vehicles, two mobile AQ laboratories, and two supersites with enhanced vertical profiling. High-resolution modeling for weather (250 m and 1 km), AQ (2.5 km), lake circulation (2 km), and wave models (250-m, 1-km, and 2.5-km ensembles) were run. The focus of the science, which guided the design of the observation network, was to characterize and investigate the lake breeze, which affects thunderstorm initiation, air pollutant transport, and heat stress. Experimental forecasts and nowcasts were provided by research support desks. Web portals provided access to the experimental products for other government departments, public health authorities, and PA15 decision-makers. The data have been released through the government of Canada’s Open Data Portal and as a World Meteorological Organization’s Global Atmospheric Watch Urban Research Meteorology and Environment dataset.
Abstract
The Pan and Parapan American Games (PA15) are the third largest sporting event in the world and were held in Toronto in the summer of 2015 (10–26 July and 7–15 August). This was used as an opportunity to coordinate and showcase existing innovative research and development activities related to weather, air quality (AQ), and health at Environment and Climate Change Canada. New observational technologies included weather stations based on compact sensors that were augmented with black globe thermometers, two Doppler lidars, two wave buoys, a 3D lightning mapping array, two new AQ stations, and low-cost AQ and ultraviolet sensors. These were supplemented by observations from other agencies, four mobile vehicles, two mobile AQ laboratories, and two supersites with enhanced vertical profiling. High-resolution modeling for weather (250 m and 1 km), AQ (2.5 km), lake circulation (2 km), and wave models (250-m, 1-km, and 2.5-km ensembles) were run. The focus of the science, which guided the design of the observation network, was to characterize and investigate the lake breeze, which affects thunderstorm initiation, air pollutant transport, and heat stress. Experimental forecasts and nowcasts were provided by research support desks. Web portals provided access to the experimental products for other government departments, public health authorities, and PA15 decision-makers. The data have been released through the government of Canada’s Open Data Portal and as a World Meteorological Organization’s Global Atmospheric Watch Urban Research Meteorology and Environment dataset.
Abstract
A large number of urban surface energy balance models now exist with different assumptions about the important features of the surface and exchange processes that need to be incorporated. To date, no comparison of these models has been conducted; in contrast, models for natural surfaces have been compared extensively as part of the Project for Intercomparison of Land-surface Parameterization Schemes. Here, the methods and first results from an extensive international comparison of 33 models are presented. The aim of the comparison overall is to understand the complexity required to model energy and water exchanges in urban areas. The degree of complexity included in the models is outlined and impacts on model performance are discussed. During the comparison there have been significant developments in the models with resulting improvements in performance (root-mean-square error falling by up to two-thirds). Evaluation is based on a dataset containing net all-wave radiation, sensible heat, and latent heat flux observations for an industrial area in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. The aim of the comparison is twofold: to identify those modeling approaches that minimize the errors in the simulated fluxes of the urban energy balance and to determine the degree of model complexity required for accurate simulations. There is evidence that some classes of models perform better for individual fluxes but no model performs best or worst for all fluxes. In general, the simpler models perform as well as the more complex models based on all statistical measures. Generally the schemes have best overall capability to model net all-wave radiation and least capability to model latent heat flux.
Abstract
A large number of urban surface energy balance models now exist with different assumptions about the important features of the surface and exchange processes that need to be incorporated. To date, no comparison of these models has been conducted; in contrast, models for natural surfaces have been compared extensively as part of the Project for Intercomparison of Land-surface Parameterization Schemes. Here, the methods and first results from an extensive international comparison of 33 models are presented. The aim of the comparison overall is to understand the complexity required to model energy and water exchanges in urban areas. The degree of complexity included in the models is outlined and impacts on model performance are discussed. During the comparison there have been significant developments in the models with resulting improvements in performance (root-mean-square error falling by up to two-thirds). Evaluation is based on a dataset containing net all-wave radiation, sensible heat, and latent heat flux observations for an industrial area in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. The aim of the comparison is twofold: to identify those modeling approaches that minimize the errors in the simulated fluxes of the urban energy balance and to determine the degree of model complexity required for accurate simulations. There is evidence that some classes of models perform better for individual fluxes but no model performs best or worst for all fluxes. In general, the simpler models perform as well as the more complex models based on all statistical measures. Generally the schemes have best overall capability to model net all-wave radiation and least capability to model latent heat flux.
