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- Author or Editor: J. Anderson x
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Abstract
The maximum-likelihood method is used to extract parameters of two-parameter models of the directional spreading of short wind waves from the power spectrum of high-frequency (HF) radar backscatter. The wind waves have a wavelength of half the radio wavelength that, for the data presented here, is at a frequency of 0.53 Hz. The parameters are short-wave direction, which at this frequency can be identified with wind direction, and the directional spread angle, the parameterization of which is model dependent. For the data presented here, the results suggest that the Donelan directional spreading model provides a better description of directional spreading than the cos s model. The HF radar and wave buoy measurements are compared and show good agreement. Measurements are presented that show the temporal and spatial structure of the short-wave field responding to the passage of a frontal system.
Abstract
The maximum-likelihood method is used to extract parameters of two-parameter models of the directional spreading of short wind waves from the power spectrum of high-frequency (HF) radar backscatter. The wind waves have a wavelength of half the radio wavelength that, for the data presented here, is at a frequency of 0.53 Hz. The parameters are short-wave direction, which at this frequency can be identified with wind direction, and the directional spread angle, the parameterization of which is model dependent. For the data presented here, the results suggest that the Donelan directional spreading model provides a better description of directional spreading than the cos s model. The HF radar and wave buoy measurements are compared and show good agreement. Measurements are presented that show the temporal and spatial structure of the short-wave field responding to the passage of a frontal system.
Abstract
While some people involved in the acoustic remote sensing field are aware of the possibility of receiving dot echoes from nonatmospheric targets, most of the papers available in the scientific literature dealing with this phenomenon associate them to atmospheric targets, such as clusters of water vapor inhomogeneity, thermodynamical processes of condensation and reevaporation of water vapor, anisotropic irregularities localized in thin layers, etc. At present, dot echoes are defined by their appearance on the echogram and are not differentiated by causative processes. As such, they share similar characteristics, such as being randomly distributed and having a time length that is similar to the time length of the emitted tone. In this paper dot echoes conforming to this definition are investigated through the analysis of the signal in both the time and frequency domain. The timescale of a dot signature along with the configuration of the sodar system provide an upper limit to the size of the targets producing these echoes. The spectral characteristics and the first and second momenta of the echoes are compared with clear-air echoes as well as with echoes produced by pilot balloons released from nearby sodar antennas. The conclusion is that the dot echoes analyzed in this paper are reflections from birds and are not due to atmospheric effects.
Abstract
While some people involved in the acoustic remote sensing field are aware of the possibility of receiving dot echoes from nonatmospheric targets, most of the papers available in the scientific literature dealing with this phenomenon associate them to atmospheric targets, such as clusters of water vapor inhomogeneity, thermodynamical processes of condensation and reevaporation of water vapor, anisotropic irregularities localized in thin layers, etc. At present, dot echoes are defined by their appearance on the echogram and are not differentiated by causative processes. As such, they share similar characteristics, such as being randomly distributed and having a time length that is similar to the time length of the emitted tone. In this paper dot echoes conforming to this definition are investigated through the analysis of the signal in both the time and frequency domain. The timescale of a dot signature along with the configuration of the sodar system provide an upper limit to the size of the targets producing these echoes. The spectral characteristics and the first and second momenta of the echoes are compared with clear-air echoes as well as with echoes produced by pilot balloons released from nearby sodar antennas. The conclusion is that the dot echoes analyzed in this paper are reflections from birds and are not due to atmospheric effects.
Abstract
A method for correcting the magnetic deviation error from planes using a flux valve heading sensor is presented. This error can significantly degrade the quality of the wind data reported from certain commercial airlines. A database is constructed on a per-plane basis and compared to multiple model analyses and observations. A unique filtering method is applied using coefficients derived from this comparison. Three regional airline fleets hosting the Tropospheric Airborne Meteorological Data Reporting (TAMDAR) sensor were analyzed and binned by error statistics. The correction method is applied to the outliers with the largest deviation, and the wind observational error was reduced by 22% (2.4 kt; 1 kt = 0.51 m s−1), 50% (8.2 kt), and 68% (20.5 kt) for each group.
Abstract
A method for correcting the magnetic deviation error from planes using a flux valve heading sensor is presented. This error can significantly degrade the quality of the wind data reported from certain commercial airlines. A database is constructed on a per-plane basis and compared to multiple model analyses and observations. A unique filtering method is applied using coefficients derived from this comparison. Three regional airline fleets hosting the Tropospheric Airborne Meteorological Data Reporting (TAMDAR) sensor were analyzed and binned by error statistics. The correction method is applied to the outliers with the largest deviation, and the wind observational error was reduced by 22% (2.4 kt; 1 kt = 0.51 m s−1), 50% (8.2 kt), and 68% (20.5 kt) for each group.
Abstract
The Advanced Scatterometer (ASCAT) on the Meteorological Operational (MetOp) series of satellites is designed to provide data for the retrieval of ocean wind fields. Three transponders were used to give an absolute calibration and the worst-case calibration error is estimated to be 0.15–0.25 dB.
In this paper the calibrated data are validated by comparing the backscatter from a range of naturally distributed targets against models developed from European Remote Sensing Satellite (ERS) scatterometer data.
For the Amazon rainforest it is found that the isotropic backscatter decreases from −6.2 to −6.8 dB over the incidence angle range. The ERS value is around −6.5 dB. All ASCAT beams are within 0.1 dB of each other. Rainforest backscatter over a 3-yr period is found to be very stable with annual changes of approximately 0.02 dB.
ASCAT ocean backscatter is compared against values from the C-band geophysical model function (CMOD-5) using ECMWF wind fields. A difference of approximately 0.2 dB below 55° incidence is found. Differences of over 1 dB above 55° are likely due to inaccuracies in CMOD-5, which has not been fully validated at large incidence angles. All beams are within 0.1 dB of each other.
Backscatter from regions of stable Antarctic sea ice is found to be consistent with model backscatter except at large incidence angles where the model has not been validated. The noise in the ice backscatter indicates that the normalized standard deviation of the backscatter values Kp is around 4.5%, which is consistent with the expected value.
These results agree well with the expected calibration accuracy and give confidence that the calibration has been successful and that ASCAT products are of high quality.
Abstract
The Advanced Scatterometer (ASCAT) on the Meteorological Operational (MetOp) series of satellites is designed to provide data for the retrieval of ocean wind fields. Three transponders were used to give an absolute calibration and the worst-case calibration error is estimated to be 0.15–0.25 dB.
In this paper the calibrated data are validated by comparing the backscatter from a range of naturally distributed targets against models developed from European Remote Sensing Satellite (ERS) scatterometer data.
For the Amazon rainforest it is found that the isotropic backscatter decreases from −6.2 to −6.8 dB over the incidence angle range. The ERS value is around −6.5 dB. All ASCAT beams are within 0.1 dB of each other. Rainforest backscatter over a 3-yr period is found to be very stable with annual changes of approximately 0.02 dB.
ASCAT ocean backscatter is compared against values from the C-band geophysical model function (CMOD-5) using ECMWF wind fields. A difference of approximately 0.2 dB below 55° incidence is found. Differences of over 1 dB above 55° are likely due to inaccuracies in CMOD-5, which has not been fully validated at large incidence angles. All beams are within 0.1 dB of each other.
Backscatter from regions of stable Antarctic sea ice is found to be consistent with model backscatter except at large incidence angles where the model has not been validated. The noise in the ice backscatter indicates that the normalized standard deviation of the backscatter values Kp is around 4.5%, which is consistent with the expected value.
These results agree well with the expected calibration accuracy and give confidence that the calibration has been successful and that ASCAT products are of high quality.
Abstract
This paper describes the performance and in-flight validation of an instrument mounted in a pallet on the NASA WB-57 research aircraft that measures the sum of gas phase and solid phase water, or total water, in cirrus clouds. Using a heated isokinetic inlet and a Lyman-α photofragment fluorescence technique for detection, measurements of total water have been made over three orders of magnitude. During the Cirrus Regional Study of Tropical Anvils and Cirrus Layers Florida Area Cirrus Experiment (CRYSTAL FACE), the instrument operated at duct temperatures sufficiently warms to completely evaporate particles up to 150-μm diameter. Laboratory calibrations, in-flight diagnostics, intercomparison with water vapor measured by absorption in flight, and intercomparisons in clear air with the Harvard water vapor instrument validate the detection sensitivity of the instrument and illustrate the minimal hysteresis from instrument surface contamination. The Harvard total water and water vapor instruments together provide measurements of the ice water content of cirrus clouds in the mid- and upper troposphere with an uncertainty of 18%.
Abstract
This paper describes the performance and in-flight validation of an instrument mounted in a pallet on the NASA WB-57 research aircraft that measures the sum of gas phase and solid phase water, or total water, in cirrus clouds. Using a heated isokinetic inlet and a Lyman-α photofragment fluorescence technique for detection, measurements of total water have been made over three orders of magnitude. During the Cirrus Regional Study of Tropical Anvils and Cirrus Layers Florida Area Cirrus Experiment (CRYSTAL FACE), the instrument operated at duct temperatures sufficiently warms to completely evaporate particles up to 150-μm diameter. Laboratory calibrations, in-flight diagnostics, intercomparison with water vapor measured by absorption in flight, and intercomparisons in clear air with the Harvard water vapor instrument validate the detection sensitivity of the instrument and illustrate the minimal hysteresis from instrument surface contamination. The Harvard total water and water vapor instruments together provide measurements of the ice water content of cirrus clouds in the mid- and upper troposphere with an uncertainty of 18%.
Abstract
This paper describes an instrument designed to measure the sum of gas phase and solid phase water, or total water, in cirrus clouds, and to be mounted in a pallet in the underbelly of the NASA WB-57 research aircraft. The ice water content of cirrus is determined by subtracting water vapor measured simultaneously by the Harvard water vapor instrument on the aircraft. The total water instrument uses an isokinetic inlet to maintain ambient particle concentrations as air enters the instrument duct, a 600-W heater mounted directly in the flow to evaporate the ice particles, and a Lyman-α photofragment fluorescence technique for detection of the total water content of the ambient air. Isokinetic flow is achieved with an actively controlled roots pump by referencing aircraft pressure, temperature, and true airspeed, together with instrument flow velocity, temperature, and pressure. Laboratory calibrations that utilize a water vapor addition system that adds air with a specific humidity tied to the vapor pressure of water at room temperature and crosschecked by axial and radial absorption of Lyman-α radiation at the detection axis are described in detail. The design provides for in-flight validation of the laboratory calibration by intercomparison with total water measured by radial absorption at the detection axis. Additionally, intercomparisons in clear air with the Harvard water vapor instrument are carried out. Based on performance of the Harvard water vapor instrument, this instrument has the detection capability of making accurate measurements of total water with mixing ratios in the mid- to upper troposphere of up to 2500 ppmv and mixing ratios in the lower stratosphere of about 5 ppmv, corresponding to almost three orders of magnitude in measurement capability.
Abstract
This paper describes an instrument designed to measure the sum of gas phase and solid phase water, or total water, in cirrus clouds, and to be mounted in a pallet in the underbelly of the NASA WB-57 research aircraft. The ice water content of cirrus is determined by subtracting water vapor measured simultaneously by the Harvard water vapor instrument on the aircraft. The total water instrument uses an isokinetic inlet to maintain ambient particle concentrations as air enters the instrument duct, a 600-W heater mounted directly in the flow to evaporate the ice particles, and a Lyman-α photofragment fluorescence technique for detection of the total water content of the ambient air. Isokinetic flow is achieved with an actively controlled roots pump by referencing aircraft pressure, temperature, and true airspeed, together with instrument flow velocity, temperature, and pressure. Laboratory calibrations that utilize a water vapor addition system that adds air with a specific humidity tied to the vapor pressure of water at room temperature and crosschecked by axial and radial absorption of Lyman-α radiation at the detection axis are described in detail. The design provides for in-flight validation of the laboratory calibration by intercomparison with total water measured by radial absorption at the detection axis. Additionally, intercomparisons in clear air with the Harvard water vapor instrument are carried out. Based on performance of the Harvard water vapor instrument, this instrument has the detection capability of making accurate measurements of total water with mixing ratios in the mid- to upper troposphere of up to 2500 ppmv and mixing ratios in the lower stratosphere of about 5 ppmv, corresponding to almost three orders of magnitude in measurement capability.
Abstract
An untended instrument to measure ocean surface heat flux has been developed for use in support of field experiments and the investigation of heat flux parameterization techniques. The sensing component of the Skin-Layer Ocean Heat Flux Instrument (SOHFI) consists of two simple thermopile heat flux sensors suspended by a fiberglass mesh mounted inside a ring-shaped surface float. These sensors make direct measurements within the conduction layer, where they are held in place by a balance between surface tension and float buoyancy. The two sensors are designed with differing solar absorption properties so that surface heat flux can be distinguished from direct solar irradiance. Under laboratory conditions, the SOHFI measurements agree well with calorimetric measurements (generally to within 10%). Performance in freshwater and ocean environments is discussed in a companion paper.
Abstract
An untended instrument to measure ocean surface heat flux has been developed for use in support of field experiments and the investigation of heat flux parameterization techniques. The sensing component of the Skin-Layer Ocean Heat Flux Instrument (SOHFI) consists of two simple thermopile heat flux sensors suspended by a fiberglass mesh mounted inside a ring-shaped surface float. These sensors make direct measurements within the conduction layer, where they are held in place by a balance between surface tension and float buoyancy. The two sensors are designed with differing solar absorption properties so that surface heat flux can be distinguished from direct solar irradiance. Under laboratory conditions, the SOHFI measurements agree well with calorimetric measurements (generally to within 10%). Performance in freshwater and ocean environments is discussed in a companion paper.
Abstract
The Skin-Layer Ocean Heat Flux Instrument (SOHFI) described by Sromovsky et al. (Part I, this issue) was field-tested in a combination of freshwater and ocean deployments. Solar irradiance monitoring and field calibration techniques were demonstrated by comparison with independent measurements. Tracking of solar irradiance diurnal variations appears to be accurate to within about 5% of full scale. Preliminary field tests of the SOHFI have shown reasonably close agreement with bulk aerodynamic heat flux estimates in freshwater and ocean environments (generally within about 20%) under low to moderate wind conditions. Performance under heavy weather suggests a need to develop better methods of submergence filtering. Ocean deployments and recoveries of drifting SOHFI-equipped buoys were made during May and June 1995, during the Combined Sensor Program of 1996 in the western tropical Pacific region, and in the Greenland Sea in May 1997. The Gulf Stream and Greenland Sea deployments pointed out the need for design modifications to improve resistance to seabird attacks. Better estimates of performance and limitations of this device require extended intercomparison tests under field conditions.
Abstract
The Skin-Layer Ocean Heat Flux Instrument (SOHFI) described by Sromovsky et al. (Part I, this issue) was field-tested in a combination of freshwater and ocean deployments. Solar irradiance monitoring and field calibration techniques were demonstrated by comparison with independent measurements. Tracking of solar irradiance diurnal variations appears to be accurate to within about 5% of full scale. Preliminary field tests of the SOHFI have shown reasonably close agreement with bulk aerodynamic heat flux estimates in freshwater and ocean environments (generally within about 20%) under low to moderate wind conditions. Performance under heavy weather suggests a need to develop better methods of submergence filtering. Ocean deployments and recoveries of drifting SOHFI-equipped buoys were made during May and June 1995, during the Combined Sensor Program of 1996 in the western tropical Pacific region, and in the Greenland Sea in May 1997. The Gulf Stream and Greenland Sea deployments pointed out the need for design modifications to improve resistance to seabird attacks. Better estimates of performance and limitations of this device require extended intercomparison tests under field conditions.
Abstract
Accurate measurement of fluctuations in temperature and humidity are needed for determination of the surface evaporation rate and the air-sea sensible heat flux using either the eddy correlation or inertial dissipation method for flux calculations. These measurements are difficult to make over the ocean, and are subject to large errors when sensors are exposed to marine air containing spray droplets. All currently available commercial measurement devices for atmospheric humidity require frequent maintenance. Included in the objectives of the Humidity Exchange over the Sea program were testing and comparison of sensors used for measuring both the fluctuating and mean humidity in the marine atmosphere at high wind speeds and development of techniques for the protection of these sensors against contamination by oceanic aerosols. These sensors and droplet removal techniques are described and comparisons between measurements from several different systems are discussed in this paper.
To accomplish these goals, participating groups devised and tested three methods of removing sea spray from the sample airstream. The best performance was given by a rotating semen device, the “spray Ringer.” Several high-frequency temperature and humidity instruments, based on different physical principles, were used in the collaborative field experiment. Temperature and humidity fluctuations were measured with sufficient accuracy inside the spray removal devices using Lyman-α hygrometers and a fast thermocouple psychrometer. Comparison of several types of psychrometers (using electric thermometers) and a Rotronic MP-100 humidity sensor for measuring the mean humidity illustrated the hysteresis of the Rotronic MP-100 device after periods of high relative humidity. Confidence in the readings of the electronic psychrometer was established by in situ calibration with repeated and careful readings of ordinary hand-held Assman psychrometers (based on mercury thermometers). Electronic psychrometer employing platinum resistance thermometers perform very well.
Abstract
Accurate measurement of fluctuations in temperature and humidity are needed for determination of the surface evaporation rate and the air-sea sensible heat flux using either the eddy correlation or inertial dissipation method for flux calculations. These measurements are difficult to make over the ocean, and are subject to large errors when sensors are exposed to marine air containing spray droplets. All currently available commercial measurement devices for atmospheric humidity require frequent maintenance. Included in the objectives of the Humidity Exchange over the Sea program were testing and comparison of sensors used for measuring both the fluctuating and mean humidity in the marine atmosphere at high wind speeds and development of techniques for the protection of these sensors against contamination by oceanic aerosols. These sensors and droplet removal techniques are described and comparisons between measurements from several different systems are discussed in this paper.
To accomplish these goals, participating groups devised and tested three methods of removing sea spray from the sample airstream. The best performance was given by a rotating semen device, the “spray Ringer.” Several high-frequency temperature and humidity instruments, based on different physical principles, were used in the collaborative field experiment. Temperature and humidity fluctuations were measured with sufficient accuracy inside the spray removal devices using Lyman-α hygrometers and a fast thermocouple psychrometer. Comparison of several types of psychrometers (using electric thermometers) and a Rotronic MP-100 humidity sensor for measuring the mean humidity illustrated the hysteresis of the Rotronic MP-100 device after periods of high relative humidity. Confidence in the readings of the electronic psychrometer was established by in situ calibration with repeated and careful readings of ordinary hand-held Assman psychrometers (based on mercury thermometers). Electronic psychrometer employing platinum resistance thermometers perform very well.
Abstract
Several methods are examined for correction of turbulence and eddy fluxes in the atmospheric boundary layer, two of them based on a potential-flow approach initiated by Wyngaard. If the distorting object is cylindrical or if the distance to the sensor is much greater than the size of the body, the undisturbed wind stress can be calculated solely from measurements made by the sensor itself; no auxiliary measurements or lengthy model calculations are needed. A more general potential-flow correction has been developed in which distorting objects of complex shape are represented as a number of ellipsoidal elements.
These models are applied to data from three turbulence anemometers with differing amounts of flow distortion, operated simultaneously in the Humidity Exchange over the Sea (HEXOS) Main Experiment. The results are compared with wind-stress estimates by the inertial-dissipation technique; these are much less sensitive to local flow distortion and are consistent with the corrected eddy correlation results. From these comparisons it is concluded that the commonly used “tilt correction” is not sufficient to correct eddy wind stress for distortion by nearby objects, such as probe supports and neighboring sensors.
Neither potential-flow method is applicable to distortion by larger bodies of a scale comparable to the measuring height, such as the superstructure of the Meetpost Noordwijk (MPN) platform used in HEXOS. Flow distortion has been measured around a model of MPN in a wind tunnel study. The results were used to correct mean winds, but simulation of distortion effects on turbulence levels and wind stress turned out not to be feasible.
Abstract
Several methods are examined for correction of turbulence and eddy fluxes in the atmospheric boundary layer, two of them based on a potential-flow approach initiated by Wyngaard. If the distorting object is cylindrical or if the distance to the sensor is much greater than the size of the body, the undisturbed wind stress can be calculated solely from measurements made by the sensor itself; no auxiliary measurements or lengthy model calculations are needed. A more general potential-flow correction has been developed in which distorting objects of complex shape are represented as a number of ellipsoidal elements.
These models are applied to data from three turbulence anemometers with differing amounts of flow distortion, operated simultaneously in the Humidity Exchange over the Sea (HEXOS) Main Experiment. The results are compared with wind-stress estimates by the inertial-dissipation technique; these are much less sensitive to local flow distortion and are consistent with the corrected eddy correlation results. From these comparisons it is concluded that the commonly used “tilt correction” is not sufficient to correct eddy wind stress for distortion by nearby objects, such as probe supports and neighboring sensors.
Neither potential-flow method is applicable to distortion by larger bodies of a scale comparable to the measuring height, such as the superstructure of the Meetpost Noordwijk (MPN) platform used in HEXOS. Flow distortion has been measured around a model of MPN in a wind tunnel study. The results were used to correct mean winds, but simulation of distortion effects on turbulence levels and wind stress turned out not to be feasible.
