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Abstract
Two three-dimensional cloud model simulations are examined and compared in order to define some of the characteristics of the low-level downdraft initiation process within deep precipitating convection. The initial environment of each case displayed similar temperature profiles but different moisture profiles. In one case, relatively dry subcloud layers were capped by relatively moist middle levels, while the opposite moisture stratification existed for the second case. Although both simulations displayed peak low-level downdraft speeds of ∼12 m s−1, downdraft spatial and temporal behavior showed significant differences. These differences can be related to dissimilarities in the environment of each case. In the dry subcloud case (the microburst case), peak downdraft speeds occurred near the 0.8 km level shortly after precipitation arrived at low levels. Low-level downdraft developed very rapidly in this case. In the other moist subcloud case, the low-level downdraft developed less rapidly and exhibited a peak magnitude significantly higher at 1.8 km. In both case the downdraft initiation process occurred within the downshear flank. Downdrafts were forced primarily over the lowest 2 km (below the melting level), where melting and evaporation of precipitation generated negative buoyancy. The results demonstrate that low-level downdraft characteristics are closely controlled by arrival of precipitation at low levels.
Abstract
Two three-dimensional cloud model simulations are examined and compared in order to define some of the characteristics of the low-level downdraft initiation process within deep precipitating convection. The initial environment of each case displayed similar temperature profiles but different moisture profiles. In one case, relatively dry subcloud layers were capped by relatively moist middle levels, while the opposite moisture stratification existed for the second case. Although both simulations displayed peak low-level downdraft speeds of ∼12 m s−1, downdraft spatial and temporal behavior showed significant differences. These differences can be related to dissimilarities in the environment of each case. In the dry subcloud case (the microburst case), peak downdraft speeds occurred near the 0.8 km level shortly after precipitation arrived at low levels. Low-level downdraft developed very rapidly in this case. In the other moist subcloud case, the low-level downdraft developed less rapidly and exhibited a peak magnitude significantly higher at 1.8 km. In both case the downdraft initiation process occurred within the downshear flank. Downdrafts were forced primarily over the lowest 2 km (below the melting level), where melting and evaporation of precipitation generated negative buoyancy. The results demonstrate that low-level downdraft characteristics are closely controlled by arrival of precipitation at low levels.
Abstract
The kinematics of a head-on collision between two gust fronts, followed by a secondary collision between a third gust front and a bore generated by the initial collision, are described using analyses of Weather Surveillance Radar-1988 Doppler (WSR-88D) and Mobile Integrated Profiling System (MIPS) data. Each gust front involved in the initial collision exhibited a nearly north–south orientation and an east–west movement. The eastward-moving boundary was 2°C colder and moved 7 m s−1 faster than the westward-moving boundary. Two-dimensional wind retrievals reveal contrasting flows within each gravity current. One exhibited a typical gravity current flow structure, while the other assumed the form of a gravity wave/current hybrid with multiple vortices atop the outflow. One of the after-collision boundaries exhibited multiple radar finelines resembling a solitary wave shortly after the collision. About 1 h after the initial collision, a vigorous gust front intersected the eastward-moving bore several minutes before both circulations were sampled by the MIPS. The MIPS measurements indicate that the gust front displaced the bore upward into a neutral residual layer. The bore apparently propagated upward even farther to the next stable layer between 2 and 3 km AGL. MIPS measurements show that the elevated turbulent bore consisted of an initial vigorous wave, with updraft/downdraft magnitudes of 3 and −6 m s−1, respectively, followed by several (elevated) waves of decreasing amplitude.
Abstract
The kinematics of a head-on collision between two gust fronts, followed by a secondary collision between a third gust front and a bore generated by the initial collision, are described using analyses of Weather Surveillance Radar-1988 Doppler (WSR-88D) and Mobile Integrated Profiling System (MIPS) data. Each gust front involved in the initial collision exhibited a nearly north–south orientation and an east–west movement. The eastward-moving boundary was 2°C colder and moved 7 m s−1 faster than the westward-moving boundary. Two-dimensional wind retrievals reveal contrasting flows within each gravity current. One exhibited a typical gravity current flow structure, while the other assumed the form of a gravity wave/current hybrid with multiple vortices atop the outflow. One of the after-collision boundaries exhibited multiple radar finelines resembling a solitary wave shortly after the collision. About 1 h after the initial collision, a vigorous gust front intersected the eastward-moving bore several minutes before both circulations were sampled by the MIPS. The MIPS measurements indicate that the gust front displaced the bore upward into a neutral residual layer. The bore apparently propagated upward even farther to the next stable layer between 2 and 3 km AGL. MIPS measurements show that the elevated turbulent bore consisted of an initial vigorous wave, with updraft/downdraft magnitudes of 3 and −6 m s−1, respectively, followed by several (elevated) waves of decreasing amplitude.
Abstract
This paper describes an analysis of a long-lived, microburst-producing storm that evolved within a relatively dry environment having a relatively low CAPE value of 450 J kg−1. The storm displayed a variety of kinematic and echo formations over its 2.5-h lifetime, including 1) a near equality in the strength (∼10 m s−1) of updrafts and downdrafts, 2) strong downdrafts over an extended time period of greater than 60 min, 3) a prevalence of up-down-type downdraft trajectories associated with the strong downdrafts, 4) a prominent echo overhang during the early mature stage, 5) a spearhead-like echo protrusion during the mature storm phase that was indirectly associated with strong downdrafts, and 6) a narrow bow echo and associated weak inflow jet at midlevels during the latter storm stage.
An elongated ascending branch of the up-down downdraft circulation was associated with the echo protrusion. The prominence of the up-down trajectory is corroborated by surface data and 3D numerical simulations, both of which reveal comparable values of equivalent potential temperature in the low-level inflow and downdraft outflow air. Time series plots of saturation point reveal an evaporation line structure typical of evaporation of precipitation into the subcloud boundary layer. Thus, in this case there is little evidence to indicate that significant amounts of downdraft air originated above the atmospheric boundary layer during the sustained mature to dissipating stages.
Abstract
This paper describes an analysis of a long-lived, microburst-producing storm that evolved within a relatively dry environment having a relatively low CAPE value of 450 J kg−1. The storm displayed a variety of kinematic and echo formations over its 2.5-h lifetime, including 1) a near equality in the strength (∼10 m s−1) of updrafts and downdrafts, 2) strong downdrafts over an extended time period of greater than 60 min, 3) a prevalence of up-down-type downdraft trajectories associated with the strong downdrafts, 4) a prominent echo overhang during the early mature stage, 5) a spearhead-like echo protrusion during the mature storm phase that was indirectly associated with strong downdrafts, and 6) a narrow bow echo and associated weak inflow jet at midlevels during the latter storm stage.
An elongated ascending branch of the up-down downdraft circulation was associated with the echo protrusion. The prominence of the up-down trajectory is corroborated by surface data and 3D numerical simulations, both of which reveal comparable values of equivalent potential temperature in the low-level inflow and downdraft outflow air. Time series plots of saturation point reveal an evaporation line structure typical of evaporation of precipitation into the subcloud boundary layer. Thus, in this case there is little evidence to indicate that significant amounts of downdraft air originated above the atmospheric boundary layer during the sustained mature to dissipating stages.
Abstract
Characteristics of convergent boundary zones (CBZs) sampled by the Mobile Integrated Profiling System (MIPS) during the 2002 International H2O Project (IHOP_2002) are presented. The MIPS sensors (915-MHz wind profiler, 12-channel microwave profiling radiometer, ceilometer, and surface instrumentation) provide very fine temporal kinematic and thermodynamic profiles of the atmospheric boundary layer and CBZ properties, including enhanced 915-MHz backscatter within the CBZ updraft (equivalent to the radar fine line), a general increase in integrated water vapor within the updrafts of the CBZ, an increase in the convective boundary layer (CBL) depth, and changes in ceilometer backscatter that are typically coincident with arrival of cooler, moister air (the case for density current CBZ).
Three contrasting CBZs are analyzed. Convective initiation was associated with a slow-moving dryline as it passed over the MIPS on 19 June. Updrafts up to 6 m s−1 were measured, and the CBL attained its greatest depth within the CBZ. The CBZ in the other two cases were quite similar to density currents. The retrograding dryline of 18 June produced an enhancement in preexisting convection within 30 km of the MIPS. On 24 May, a shallow cold front, about 800 m deep, was sampled.
Abstract
Characteristics of convergent boundary zones (CBZs) sampled by the Mobile Integrated Profiling System (MIPS) during the 2002 International H2O Project (IHOP_2002) are presented. The MIPS sensors (915-MHz wind profiler, 12-channel microwave profiling radiometer, ceilometer, and surface instrumentation) provide very fine temporal kinematic and thermodynamic profiles of the atmospheric boundary layer and CBZ properties, including enhanced 915-MHz backscatter within the CBZ updraft (equivalent to the radar fine line), a general increase in integrated water vapor within the updrafts of the CBZ, an increase in the convective boundary layer (CBL) depth, and changes in ceilometer backscatter that are typically coincident with arrival of cooler, moister air (the case for density current CBZ).
Three contrasting CBZs are analyzed. Convective initiation was associated with a slow-moving dryline as it passed over the MIPS on 19 June. Updrafts up to 6 m s−1 were measured, and the CBL attained its greatest depth within the CBZ. The CBZ in the other two cases were quite similar to density currents. The retrograding dryline of 18 June produced an enhancement in preexisting convection within 30 km of the MIPS. On 24 May, a shallow cold front, about 800 m deep, was sampled.
Abstract
The effects of terrain on tornadoes are poorly understood. Efforts to understand terrain effects on tornadoes have been limited in scope, typically examining a small number of cases with limited observations or idealized numerical simulations. This study evaluates an apparent tornado activity maximum across the Sand Mountain and Lookout Mountain plateaus of northeastern Alabama. These plateaus, separated by the narrow Wills Valley, span ~5000 km2 and were impacted by 79 tornadoes from 1992 to 2016. This area represents a relative regional statistical maximum in tornadogenesis, with a particular tendency for tornadogenesis on the northwestern side of Sand Mountain. This exploratory paper investigates storm behavior and possible physical explanations for this density of tornadogenesis events and tornadoes. Long-term surface observation datasets indicate that surface winds tend to be stronger and more backed atop Sand Mountain than over the adjacent Tennessee Valley, potentially indicative of changes in the low-level wind profile supportive to storm rotation. The surface data additionally indicate potentially lower lifting condensation levels over the plateaus versus the adjacent valleys, an attribute previously shown to be favorable for tornadogenesis. Rapid Update Cycle and Rapid Refresh model output indicate that Froude numbers for the plateaus in tornadic environments are likely supportive of enhanced low-level flow over the plateaus, which further indicates the potential for favorable wind profile changes for tornado production. Examples of tornadic storms rapidly acquiring increased low-level rotation while reaching the plateaus of northeast Alabama are presented. The use of this background to inform the VORTEX-SE 2017 field campaign is discussed.
Abstract
The effects of terrain on tornadoes are poorly understood. Efforts to understand terrain effects on tornadoes have been limited in scope, typically examining a small number of cases with limited observations or idealized numerical simulations. This study evaluates an apparent tornado activity maximum across the Sand Mountain and Lookout Mountain plateaus of northeastern Alabama. These plateaus, separated by the narrow Wills Valley, span ~5000 km2 and were impacted by 79 tornadoes from 1992 to 2016. This area represents a relative regional statistical maximum in tornadogenesis, with a particular tendency for tornadogenesis on the northwestern side of Sand Mountain. This exploratory paper investigates storm behavior and possible physical explanations for this density of tornadogenesis events and tornadoes. Long-term surface observation datasets indicate that surface winds tend to be stronger and more backed atop Sand Mountain than over the adjacent Tennessee Valley, potentially indicative of changes in the low-level wind profile supportive to storm rotation. The surface data additionally indicate potentially lower lifting condensation levels over the plateaus versus the adjacent valleys, an attribute previously shown to be favorable for tornadogenesis. Rapid Update Cycle and Rapid Refresh model output indicate that Froude numbers for the plateaus in tornadic environments are likely supportive of enhanced low-level flow over the plateaus, which further indicates the potential for favorable wind profile changes for tornado production. Examples of tornadic storms rapidly acquiring increased low-level rotation while reaching the plateaus of northeast Alabama are presented. The use of this background to inform the VORTEX-SE 2017 field campaign is discussed.
Abstract
This paper utilizes experimental data from a multiple Doppler radar and surface mesoscale network to describe the evolution and structure of a small, isolated, mesoscale convective system over the South Park region of central Colorado. This system evolved from a cluster of convective clouds which eventually transformed to a mature system possessing both stratiform and convective components. The structure of individual precipitating convective clouds comprising the mature system depended on their location (upshear or downshear) relative to the system. Unsteady upshear convective components formed discretely and propagated upshear. In contrast, downshear convective components occupied a greater area, exhibited more steadiness, and propagated downshear.
Doppler analyses indicate that mesoscale updrafts within anvils flanking the convective cores existed relatively early, about 1.5 h after first cloud formation. Mesoscale downdrafts did not appear until ∼3 h after precipitation initiation. The appearance of a mesoscale downdraft was temporally correlated with intensification of the upshear convective region. The analyses suggest a close dependence between upshear convection and the stratiform region in this case. Upshear convection supplied condensate to the stratiform region, while the stratiform region produced mesoscale downdrafts whose outflow boundary helped maintain the upshear convection.
Abstract
This paper utilizes experimental data from a multiple Doppler radar and surface mesoscale network to describe the evolution and structure of a small, isolated, mesoscale convective system over the South Park region of central Colorado. This system evolved from a cluster of convective clouds which eventually transformed to a mature system possessing both stratiform and convective components. The structure of individual precipitating convective clouds comprising the mature system depended on their location (upshear or downshear) relative to the system. Unsteady upshear convective components formed discretely and propagated upshear. In contrast, downshear convective components occupied a greater area, exhibited more steadiness, and propagated downshear.
Doppler analyses indicate that mesoscale updrafts within anvils flanking the convective cores existed relatively early, about 1.5 h after first cloud formation. Mesoscale downdrafts did not appear until ∼3 h after precipitation initiation. The appearance of a mesoscale downdraft was temporally correlated with intensification of the upshear convective region. The analyses suggest a close dependence between upshear convection and the stratiform region in this case. Upshear convection supplied condensate to the stratiform region, while the stratiform region produced mesoscale downdrafts whose outflow boundary helped maintain the upshear convection.
Abstract
Previous work has shown that vorticity mixing in the tropical cyclone (TC) inner core can promote mesovortex (MV) formation and impact storm intensity. Observations of MVs have largely been serendipitous but are necessary to improve understanding of these features and their role in TC dynamics. This study presents nearly 10 h of ground-based dual-Doppler analysis of MVs in the eyewall of Hurricane Ike (2008) near and during landfall. Derived 3D winds, vertical vorticity, horizontal divergence, and perturbation pressures are analyzed. Results indicate persistent kinematic field arrangements and evolving vertical structures. Perturbation pressure retrievals suggest local pressure minima associated with the MVs. Preferential updraft locations appear to transition cyclonically about the local vorticity maximum as the MVs progress around the eye. Based on published observational datasets, the dual-Doppler updraft magnitudes in Ike’s MVs are within the top 5%–10% of TC vertical velocities. The MVs are marked by peak vorticity in the lowest 2 km and contain vertically coherent vorticity structures extending to 8 km AGL. After prolonged land interaction, the MV structures deteriorate. First, the vertical extent of localized vorticity diminishes, followed by a deterioration in the prelandfall characteristic kinematic arrangements. This supports the notion that the replenishment of a high vorticity annulus contributes to MV production and maintenance, and when the elevated vorticity aloft is not maintained, MV kinematic patterns become less consistent. It is unclear whether the decay of the vertically coherent vorticity structures occurs in response to land interaction, TC inner core processes, or some combination of both.
Abstract
Previous work has shown that vorticity mixing in the tropical cyclone (TC) inner core can promote mesovortex (MV) formation and impact storm intensity. Observations of MVs have largely been serendipitous but are necessary to improve understanding of these features and their role in TC dynamics. This study presents nearly 10 h of ground-based dual-Doppler analysis of MVs in the eyewall of Hurricane Ike (2008) near and during landfall. Derived 3D winds, vertical vorticity, horizontal divergence, and perturbation pressures are analyzed. Results indicate persistent kinematic field arrangements and evolving vertical structures. Perturbation pressure retrievals suggest local pressure minima associated with the MVs. Preferential updraft locations appear to transition cyclonically about the local vorticity maximum as the MVs progress around the eye. Based on published observational datasets, the dual-Doppler updraft magnitudes in Ike’s MVs are within the top 5%–10% of TC vertical velocities. The MVs are marked by peak vorticity in the lowest 2 km and contain vertically coherent vorticity structures extending to 8 km AGL. After prolonged land interaction, the MV structures deteriorate. First, the vertical extent of localized vorticity diminishes, followed by a deterioration in the prelandfall characteristic kinematic arrangements. This supports the notion that the replenishment of a high vorticity annulus contributes to MV production and maintenance, and when the elevated vorticity aloft is not maintained, MV kinematic patterns become less consistent. It is unclear whether the decay of the vertically coherent vorticity structures occurs in response to land interaction, TC inner core processes, or some combination of both.
Abstract
Apparent interactions between ducted gravity waves and preexisting mesocyclones are investigated. Preliminary analyses of Weather Surveillance Radar-1988 Doppler (WSR-88D) observations from several cases reveal that the intersection of fine lines, whose propagation speed is consistent with that of gravity waves, and existing mesocyclones leads to an increase in the rotational velocity of the mesocyclone. Utilizing simplified ducted wave kinematics and the vorticity equation, changes in vorticity associated with convergence–divergence and perturbation wind shear within the gravity wave are examined. Convergence ahead of wave ridges may be significant, causing mesocyclone intensification through vorticity stretching. It will also be shown that a wave may significantly change the vertical wind shear and streamwise vorticity in storm inflow. A simple one-dimensional model is presented, which shows that vorticity decreases temporarily ahead of the wave ridge, then increases rapidly behind the ridge as positive tilting and stretching act together. The mesocyclone vorticity reaches a peak just ahead of the wave ridge, then begins to rapidly decrease behind the ridge. Model results compared very well to actual measurements in a sample case in which a mesocyclone interacted with two gravity waves of different amplitudes.
Abstract
Apparent interactions between ducted gravity waves and preexisting mesocyclones are investigated. Preliminary analyses of Weather Surveillance Radar-1988 Doppler (WSR-88D) observations from several cases reveal that the intersection of fine lines, whose propagation speed is consistent with that of gravity waves, and existing mesocyclones leads to an increase in the rotational velocity of the mesocyclone. Utilizing simplified ducted wave kinematics and the vorticity equation, changes in vorticity associated with convergence–divergence and perturbation wind shear within the gravity wave are examined. Convergence ahead of wave ridges may be significant, causing mesocyclone intensification through vorticity stretching. It will also be shown that a wave may significantly change the vertical wind shear and streamwise vorticity in storm inflow. A simple one-dimensional model is presented, which shows that vorticity decreases temporarily ahead of the wave ridge, then increases rapidly behind the ridge as positive tilting and stretching act together. The mesocyclone vorticity reaches a peak just ahead of the wave ridge, then begins to rapidly decrease behind the ridge. Model results compared very well to actual measurements in a sample case in which a mesocyclone interacted with two gravity waves of different amplitudes.
Abstract
The contrasting behavior of cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning associated with three adjacent supercell thunderstorms observed on 18 May 1995 is examined. Thunderstorm characteristics and anvil interactions are related to north–south variations in CG lightning properties. While tornadic activity was not consistently related to variations in CG properties, radar reflectivity factor area greater than 65 dBZ was generally inversely related to CG frequency. It is hypothesized that suppression of CG activity was produced by reduction of large number concentrations of precipitation-sized particles (i.e., presence of large hail) in the particle interaction mixed phase region. It is further hypothesized that seeding from upstream storm anvil ice was associated with nearly coincident enhancement of CG activity in downstream storms. Likewise, it is hypothesized that the reduction in 65 dBZ echo area (inferred suppression of hail) is related to this inferred anvil seeding process.
Abstract
The contrasting behavior of cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning associated with three adjacent supercell thunderstorms observed on 18 May 1995 is examined. Thunderstorm characteristics and anvil interactions are related to north–south variations in CG lightning properties. While tornadic activity was not consistently related to variations in CG properties, radar reflectivity factor area greater than 65 dBZ was generally inversely related to CG frequency. It is hypothesized that suppression of CG activity was produced by reduction of large number concentrations of precipitation-sized particles (i.e., presence of large hail) in the particle interaction mixed phase region. It is further hypothesized that seeding from upstream storm anvil ice was associated with nearly coincident enhancement of CG activity in downstream storms. Likewise, it is hypothesized that the reduction in 65 dBZ echo area (inferred suppression of hail) is related to this inferred anvil seeding process.
