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- Author or Editor: Luca Centurioni x
- Journal of Physical Oceanography x
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Abstract
Velocity observations near the surface made with Argos satellite-tracked drifters between 1989 and 2002 provide evidence of seasonal currents entering the South China Sea from the Philippine Sea through the Luzon Strait. The drifters cross the strait and reach the interior of the South China Sea only between October and January, with ensemble mean speeds of 0.7 ± 0.4 m s−1 and daily mean westward speeds that can exceed 1.65 m s−1. The majority of the drifters that continued to reside in the South China Sea made the entry within a westward current system located at ∼20°N that crossed the prevailing northward Kuroshio path. In other seasons, the drifters looped across the strait within the Kuroshio and exited along the south coast of Taiwan. During one intrusion event, satellite altimeters indicated that, directly west of the strait, anticyclonic and cyclonic eddies resided, respectively, north and south of the entering drifter track. The surface currents measured by the crossing drifters were much larger than the Ekman currents that would be produced by an 8–10 m s−1 northeast monsoon, suggesting that a deeper westward current system, as seen in historical watermass analyses, was present.
Abstract
Velocity observations near the surface made with Argos satellite-tracked drifters between 1989 and 2002 provide evidence of seasonal currents entering the South China Sea from the Philippine Sea through the Luzon Strait. The drifters cross the strait and reach the interior of the South China Sea only between October and January, with ensemble mean speeds of 0.7 ± 0.4 m s−1 and daily mean westward speeds that can exceed 1.65 m s−1. The majority of the drifters that continued to reside in the South China Sea made the entry within a westward current system located at ∼20°N that crossed the prevailing northward Kuroshio path. In other seasons, the drifters looped across the strait within the Kuroshio and exited along the south coast of Taiwan. During one intrusion event, satellite altimeters indicated that, directly west of the strait, anticyclonic and cyclonic eddies resided, respectively, north and south of the entering drifter track. The surface currents measured by the crossing drifters were much larger than the Ekman currents that would be produced by an 8–10 m s−1 northeast monsoon, suggesting that a deeper westward current system, as seen in historical watermass analyses, was present.
Abstract
A cluster of 45 drifters deployed in the Bay of Bengal is tracked for a period of four months. Pair dispersion statistics, from observed drifter trajectories and simulated trajectories based on surface geostrophic velocity, are analyzed as a function of drifter separation and time. Pair dispersion suggests nonlocal dynamics at submesoscales of 1–20 km, likely controlled by the energetic mesoscale eddies present during the observations. Second-order velocity structure functions and their Helmholtz decomposition, however, suggest local dispersion and divergent horizontal flow at scales below 20 km. This inconsistency cannot be explained by inertial oscillations alone, as has been reported in recent studies, and is likely related to other nondispersive processes that impact structure functions but do not enter pair dispersion statistics. At scales comparable to the deformation radius L D , which is approximately 60 km, we find dynamics in agreement with Richardson’s law and observe local dispersion in both pair dispersion statistics and second-order velocity structure functions.
Abstract
A cluster of 45 drifters deployed in the Bay of Bengal is tracked for a period of four months. Pair dispersion statistics, from observed drifter trajectories and simulated trajectories based on surface geostrophic velocity, are analyzed as a function of drifter separation and time. Pair dispersion suggests nonlocal dynamics at submesoscales of 1–20 km, likely controlled by the energetic mesoscale eddies present during the observations. Second-order velocity structure functions and their Helmholtz decomposition, however, suggest local dispersion and divergent horizontal flow at scales below 20 km. This inconsistency cannot be explained by inertial oscillations alone, as has been reported in recent studies, and is likely related to other nondispersive processes that impact structure functions but do not enter pair dispersion statistics. At scales comparable to the deformation radius L D , which is approximately 60 km, we find dynamics in agreement with Richardson’s law and observe local dispersion in both pair dispersion statistics and second-order velocity structure functions.
Abstract
The Minimet is a Lagrangian surface drifter measuring near-surface winds in situ. Ten Minimets were deployed in the Iceland Basin over the course of two field seasons in 2018 and 2019. We compared Minimet wind measurements to coincident ship winds from the R/V Armstrong meteorology package and to hourly ERA5 reanalysis winds and found that the Minimets accurately captured wind variability across a variety of time scales. Comparisons between the ship, Minimets, and ERA5 winds point to significant discrepancies between the in situ wind measurements and ERA5, with the most reasonable explanation being related to spatial offsets of small-scale storm structures in the reanalysis model. After a general assessment of the Minimet performance, we compare estimates of wind power input in the near-inertial band using the Minimet winds and their measured drift to those using ERA5 winds and the Minimet drift. Minimet-derived near-inertial wind power estimates exceed those from Minimet drift combined with ERA5 winds by about 42%. The results highlight the importance of accurately capturing small-scale, high-frequency wind events and suggest that in situ Minimet measurements are beneficial for accurately quantifying near-inertial wind work on the ocean.
Significance Statement
In this study we introduce a novel, freely drifting wind measurement platform, the Minimet. After an initial validation of Minimet sea surface wind measurements against independent wind measurements from a nearby research vessel, we investigate their utility in context of the near-inertial work done by the wind on the ocean, which is important for the ocean’s energy budget. We find Minimet near-inertial wind work estimates exceed those estimated using winds from a state-of-the-art wind product by 42%. Our results indicate that capturing storm events happening on time scales less than 12 h is crucial for accurately quantifying near-inertial wind work on the ocean, making wind measurements from platforms such as the Minimet invaluable for these analyses.
Abstract
The Minimet is a Lagrangian surface drifter measuring near-surface winds in situ. Ten Minimets were deployed in the Iceland Basin over the course of two field seasons in 2018 and 2019. We compared Minimet wind measurements to coincident ship winds from the R/V Armstrong meteorology package and to hourly ERA5 reanalysis winds and found that the Minimets accurately captured wind variability across a variety of time scales. Comparisons between the ship, Minimets, and ERA5 winds point to significant discrepancies between the in situ wind measurements and ERA5, with the most reasonable explanation being related to spatial offsets of small-scale storm structures in the reanalysis model. After a general assessment of the Minimet performance, we compare estimates of wind power input in the near-inertial band using the Minimet winds and their measured drift to those using ERA5 winds and the Minimet drift. Minimet-derived near-inertial wind power estimates exceed those from Minimet drift combined with ERA5 winds by about 42%. The results highlight the importance of accurately capturing small-scale, high-frequency wind events and suggest that in situ Minimet measurements are beneficial for accurately quantifying near-inertial wind work on the ocean.
Significance Statement
In this study we introduce a novel, freely drifting wind measurement platform, the Minimet. After an initial validation of Minimet sea surface wind measurements against independent wind measurements from a nearby research vessel, we investigate their utility in context of the near-inertial work done by the wind on the ocean, which is important for the ocean’s energy budget. We find Minimet near-inertial wind work estimates exceed those estimated using winds from a state-of-the-art wind product by 42%. Our results indicate that capturing storm events happening on time scales less than 12 h is crucial for accurately quantifying near-inertial wind work on the ocean, making wind measurements from platforms such as the Minimet invaluable for these analyses.
Abstract
Wake eddies are important to physical oceanographers because they tend to dominate current variability in the lee of islands. However, their generation and evolution has been difficult to study due to their intermittency. In this study, 2 years of observations from Surface Velocity Program (SVP) drifters are used to calculate relative vorticity (ζ) and diffusivity (κ) in the wake generated by westward flow past the archipelago of Palau. Over 2 years, 19 clusters of five SVP drifters ∼5 km in scale were released from the north end of the archipelago. Out of these, 15 were entrained in the wake. We compare estimates of ζ from both velocity spatial gradients (least squares fitting) and velocity time series (wavelet analysis). Drifters in the wake were entrained in either energetic submesoscale eddies with initial ζ up to 6f, or island-scale recirculation and large-scale lateral shear with ζ ∼ 0.1f. Here f is the local Coriolis frequency. Mean wake vorticity is initially 1.5f but decreases inversely with time (t), while mean cluster scale (L) increases as L ∝ t. Kinetic energy measured by the drifters is comparatively constant. This suggests ζ is predominantly a function of scale, confirmed by binning enstrophy (ζ 2) by inverse scale. We find κ ∝ L 4/3 and upper and lower bounds for L(t) are given by t 3/2 and t 1/2, respectively. These trends are predicted by a model of dispersion due to lateral shear. We argue the observed time dependence of cluster scale and vorticity suggest island-scale shear controls eddy growth in the wake of Palau.
Abstract
Wake eddies are important to physical oceanographers because they tend to dominate current variability in the lee of islands. However, their generation and evolution has been difficult to study due to their intermittency. In this study, 2 years of observations from Surface Velocity Program (SVP) drifters are used to calculate relative vorticity (ζ) and diffusivity (κ) in the wake generated by westward flow past the archipelago of Palau. Over 2 years, 19 clusters of five SVP drifters ∼5 km in scale were released from the north end of the archipelago. Out of these, 15 were entrained in the wake. We compare estimates of ζ from both velocity spatial gradients (least squares fitting) and velocity time series (wavelet analysis). Drifters in the wake were entrained in either energetic submesoscale eddies with initial ζ up to 6f, or island-scale recirculation and large-scale lateral shear with ζ ∼ 0.1f. Here f is the local Coriolis frequency. Mean wake vorticity is initially 1.5f but decreases inversely with time (t), while mean cluster scale (L) increases as L ∝ t. Kinetic energy measured by the drifters is comparatively constant. This suggests ζ is predominantly a function of scale, confirmed by binning enstrophy (ζ 2) by inverse scale. We find κ ∝ L 4/3 and upper and lower bounds for L(t) are given by t 3/2 and t 1/2, respectively. These trends are predicted by a model of dispersion due to lateral shear. We argue the observed time dependence of cluster scale and vorticity suggest island-scale shear controls eddy growth in the wake of Palau.
Abstract
The observed development of deep mixed layers and the dependence of intense, deep-mixing events on wind and wave conditions are studied using an ocean LES model with and without an imposed Stokes-drift wave forcing. Model results are compared to glider measurements of the ocean vertical temperature, salinity, and turbulence kinetic energy (TKE) dissipation rate structure collected in the Icelandic Basin. Observed wind stress reached 0.8 N m−2 with significant wave height of 4–6 m, while boundary layer depths reached 180 m. We find that wave forcing, via the commonly used Stokes drift vortex force parameterization, is crucial for accurate prediction of boundary layer depth as characterized by measured and predicted TKE dissipation rate profiles. Analysis of the boundary layer kinetic energy (KE) budget using a modified total Lagrangian-mean energy equation, derived for the wave-averaged Boussinesq equations by requiring that the rotational inertial terms vanish identically as in the standard energy budget without Stokes forcing, suggests that wind work should be calculated using both the surface current and surface Stokes drift. A large percentage of total wind energy is transferred to model TKE via regular and Stokes drift shear production and dissipated. However, resonance by clockwise rotation of the winds can greatly enhance the generation of inertial current mean KE (MKE). Without resonance, TKE production is about 5 times greater than MKE generation, whereas with resonance this ratio decreases to roughly 2. The results have implications for the problem of estimating the global kinetic energy budget of the ocean.
Abstract
The observed development of deep mixed layers and the dependence of intense, deep-mixing events on wind and wave conditions are studied using an ocean LES model with and without an imposed Stokes-drift wave forcing. Model results are compared to glider measurements of the ocean vertical temperature, salinity, and turbulence kinetic energy (TKE) dissipation rate structure collected in the Icelandic Basin. Observed wind stress reached 0.8 N m−2 with significant wave height of 4–6 m, while boundary layer depths reached 180 m. We find that wave forcing, via the commonly used Stokes drift vortex force parameterization, is crucial for accurate prediction of boundary layer depth as characterized by measured and predicted TKE dissipation rate profiles. Analysis of the boundary layer kinetic energy (KE) budget using a modified total Lagrangian-mean energy equation, derived for the wave-averaged Boussinesq equations by requiring that the rotational inertial terms vanish identically as in the standard energy budget without Stokes forcing, suggests that wind work should be calculated using both the surface current and surface Stokes drift. A large percentage of total wind energy is transferred to model TKE via regular and Stokes drift shear production and dissipated. However, resonance by clockwise rotation of the winds can greatly enhance the generation of inertial current mean KE (MKE). Without resonance, TKE production is about 5 times greater than MKE generation, whereas with resonance this ratio decreases to roughly 2. The results have implications for the problem of estimating the global kinetic energy budget of the ocean.
Abstract
Along with boundary layer turbulence, downward radiation of near-inertial waves (NIWs) damps inertial oscillations (IOs) in the surface ocean; however, the latter can also energize abyssal mixing. Here we present observations made from a dipole vortex in the Iceland Basin where, after the period of direct wind forcing, IOs lost over half their kinetic energy (KE) in two inertial periods to radiation of NIWs with minimal turbulent dissipation of KE. The dipole’s vorticity gradient led to a rapid reduction in the NIW’s lateral wavelength via ζ refraction that was accompanied by isopycnal undulations below the surface mixed layer. Pressure anomalies associated with the undulations were correlated with the NIW’s velocity yielding an energy flux of 310 mW m−2 pointed antiparallel to the vorticity gradient and a downward flux of 1 mW m−2 capable of driving the observed drop in KE. The minimal role of turbulence in the energetics after the IOs had been generated by the winds was confirmed using a large-eddy simulation driven by the observed winds.
Significance Statement
We report direct observational estimates of the vector wave energy flux of a near-inertial wave. The energy flux points from high to low vorticity in the horizontal, consistent with the theory of ζ refraction. The downward energy flux dominates the observed damping of inertial motions over turbulent dissipation and mixing.
Abstract
Along with boundary layer turbulence, downward radiation of near-inertial waves (NIWs) damps inertial oscillations (IOs) in the surface ocean; however, the latter can also energize abyssal mixing. Here we present observations made from a dipole vortex in the Iceland Basin where, after the period of direct wind forcing, IOs lost over half their kinetic energy (KE) in two inertial periods to radiation of NIWs with minimal turbulent dissipation of KE. The dipole’s vorticity gradient led to a rapid reduction in the NIW’s lateral wavelength via ζ refraction that was accompanied by isopycnal undulations below the surface mixed layer. Pressure anomalies associated with the undulations were correlated with the NIW’s velocity yielding an energy flux of 310 mW m−2 pointed antiparallel to the vorticity gradient and a downward flux of 1 mW m−2 capable of driving the observed drop in KE. The minimal role of turbulence in the energetics after the IOs had been generated by the winds was confirmed using a large-eddy simulation driven by the observed winds.
Significance Statement
We report direct observational estimates of the vector wave energy flux of a near-inertial wave. The energy flux points from high to low vorticity in the horizontal, consistent with the theory of ζ refraction. The downward energy flux dominates the observed damping of inertial motions over turbulent dissipation and mixing.
