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Abstract
The cloud-base diameters of 40 cumulus clouds traversed by aircraft on 14 days of the Cooperative Convective Precipitation Experiment (CCOPE) are shown to increase with the vertical shear of the horizontal wind through cloud base. The relationship is stronger when only the largest clouds sampled in each of the 16 populations are considered. The relationship is strongest when the cloud diameter is normalized by the maximum achievable cloud height, as estimated by the parcel equilibrium height. Assuming a cloud diameter—height ratio of around 1, this implies that larger shear enables clouds to reach a larger fraction of their maximum possible size given the thermodynamic conditions. Alternatively, larger shear may lead to clouds with larger diameter-height ratios. The correct interpretation is probably a combination of the two.
The physical mechanisms for the growth of these largest clouds seem to involve interaction among clouds and the interaction of the clouds with cloud—and boundary layer—induced tropospheric gravity waves, as discussed by Clerk et al. (1986), since these interactions are stronger with stronger vertical shear of the horizontal wind through cloud base. Once produced, the larger clouds that produce outflows have a greater chance to enlarge or to produce new clouds in situations with stronger shear, enhancing the chance of sampling larger clouds.
Abstract
The cloud-base diameters of 40 cumulus clouds traversed by aircraft on 14 days of the Cooperative Convective Precipitation Experiment (CCOPE) are shown to increase with the vertical shear of the horizontal wind through cloud base. The relationship is stronger when only the largest clouds sampled in each of the 16 populations are considered. The relationship is strongest when the cloud diameter is normalized by the maximum achievable cloud height, as estimated by the parcel equilibrium height. Assuming a cloud diameter—height ratio of around 1, this implies that larger shear enables clouds to reach a larger fraction of their maximum possible size given the thermodynamic conditions. Alternatively, larger shear may lead to clouds with larger diameter-height ratios. The correct interpretation is probably a combination of the two.
The physical mechanisms for the growth of these largest clouds seem to involve interaction among clouds and the interaction of the clouds with cloud—and boundary layer—induced tropospheric gravity waves, as discussed by Clerk et al. (1986), since these interactions are stronger with stronger vertical shear of the horizontal wind through cloud base. Once produced, the larger clouds that produce outflows have a greater chance to enlarge or to produce new clouds in situations with stronger shear, enhancing the chance of sampling larger clouds.
Abstract
The vertical transport of horizontal momentum normal to a line of cumulonimbus observed during GATE on 14 September 1974 is against the vertical momentum gradient, contrary to the predictions of mixing-length theory. Data from repeated aircraft passes normal to the line's axis at heights from 0.15 to 5.5 km are used to document the flux and determine its source. The flux is concentrated in roughly a 25 km wide “active zone” just behind the leading edge of the line, in kilometer-scale convective updrafts accelerated upward by buoyancy and toward the rear of the line by mesoscale pressure forces. The fall in mesoscale pressure from the leading edge to the rear of the active zone is mainly hydrostatic, resulting from relatively high virtual temperatures and the 60 degree tilt of the leading edge from the vertical, with the clouds at the surface well ahead of those aloft.
Evaluation of the terms in the momentum-flux generation equation confirms that the above process, reflected by the velocity-buoyancy correlation term, is responsible for generating momentum flux of the observed sign. The component of momentum flux parallel to the axis of the convective band is generated much like “down-gradient” momentum flux within the fair-weather subcloud layer.
Abstract
The vertical transport of horizontal momentum normal to a line of cumulonimbus observed during GATE on 14 September 1974 is against the vertical momentum gradient, contrary to the predictions of mixing-length theory. Data from repeated aircraft passes normal to the line's axis at heights from 0.15 to 5.5 km are used to document the flux and determine its source. The flux is concentrated in roughly a 25 km wide “active zone” just behind the leading edge of the line, in kilometer-scale convective updrafts accelerated upward by buoyancy and toward the rear of the line by mesoscale pressure forces. The fall in mesoscale pressure from the leading edge to the rear of the active zone is mainly hydrostatic, resulting from relatively high virtual temperatures and the 60 degree tilt of the leading edge from the vertical, with the clouds at the surface well ahead of those aloft.
Evaluation of the terms in the momentum-flux generation equation confirms that the above process, reflected by the velocity-buoyancy correlation term, is responsible for generating momentum flux of the observed sign. The component of momentum flux parallel to the axis of the convective band is generated much like “down-gradient” momentum flux within the fair-weather subcloud layer.
Abstract
The wind and temperature fields of the Planetary boundary layer (PBL) are investigated during periods in which horizontal roll vortices are present. Measurements from a 444 m tower and from inertially-stabilized aircraft indicate the rolls are maintained primarily by 1) production of energy from the cross-roll component of the mean PBL wind spiral (inflectional instability and 2) buoyancy. Complicating a simple picture of two-dimensional rolls are other kilometer-scale eddies whose energy exchanges with the tolls may be important.
The importance of inflectional instability is indicated by the similarity of roll structure to that predicted by models based on the formation of the rolls as a result of instability in the cross-wind (V component of the Ekman spiral. Rolls observed are generally oriented from 10° to 20° to the left of the wind at inversion base, with maximum roll vertical velocity at 0.33zi(where zi is inversion height) and maximum lateral velocity at 0.07zi Atmospheric roll magnitude compare favorably to those predicted by Brown, but predictions are consistently low with a maximum underestimate of 40%.
Both tower and aircraft measurements indicate substantial heat flux by rolls. It is shown that including positive roll heat flux into Brown's neutral equilibrium energy budget will lead to rolls of larger magnitude.
Abstract
The wind and temperature fields of the Planetary boundary layer (PBL) are investigated during periods in which horizontal roll vortices are present. Measurements from a 444 m tower and from inertially-stabilized aircraft indicate the rolls are maintained primarily by 1) production of energy from the cross-roll component of the mean PBL wind spiral (inflectional instability and 2) buoyancy. Complicating a simple picture of two-dimensional rolls are other kilometer-scale eddies whose energy exchanges with the tolls may be important.
The importance of inflectional instability is indicated by the similarity of roll structure to that predicted by models based on the formation of the rolls as a result of instability in the cross-wind (V component of the Ekman spiral. Rolls observed are generally oriented from 10° to 20° to the left of the wind at inversion base, with maximum roll vertical velocity at 0.33zi(where zi is inversion height) and maximum lateral velocity at 0.07zi Atmospheric roll magnitude compare favorably to those predicted by Brown, but predictions are consistently low with a maximum underestimate of 40%.
Both tower and aircraft measurements indicate substantial heat flux by rolls. It is shown that including positive roll heat flux into Brown's neutral equilibrium energy budget will lead to rolls of larger magnitude.
Abstract
Horizontal roll vortices influence the distribution of turbulence, with turbulence variances and fluxes concentrated in regions of positive roll vertical velocity ωr. This “modulation” of turbulence can be explained simply in terms of the advection of turbulence-generating elements by rolls.
A budget equation is derived for the roll-modulated turbulence energy. Evaluations of various terms in the equation shows that the modulation of turbulence variance is accounted for primarily by a similar modulation in mechanical and buoyancy production near the surface and by vertical transport at higher levels (∼100 m). Energy exchange between rolls and turbulence is relatively unimportant. That is, the rolls modulate, turbulence energy mainly by redistributing turbulence and turbulence-producing elements, rather than by exchanging energy.
Similarly, it is shown that the exchange of energy between rolls and roll-modulated turbulence contributes considerably less to the energy equation of rolls than does the major term, buoyancy.
Abstract
Horizontal roll vortices influence the distribution of turbulence, with turbulence variances and fluxes concentrated in regions of positive roll vertical velocity ωr. This “modulation” of turbulence can be explained simply in terms of the advection of turbulence-generating elements by rolls.
A budget equation is derived for the roll-modulated turbulence energy. Evaluations of various terms in the equation shows that the modulation of turbulence variance is accounted for primarily by a similar modulation in mechanical and buoyancy production near the surface and by vertical transport at higher levels (∼100 m). Energy exchange between rolls and turbulence is relatively unimportant. That is, the rolls modulate, turbulence energy mainly by redistributing turbulence and turbulence-producing elements, rather than by exchanging energy.
Similarly, it is shown that the exchange of energy between rolls and roll-modulated turbulence contributes considerably less to the energy equation of rolls than does the major term, buoyancy.
Abstract
Results from a detailed three-dimensional model of the atmospheric boundary layer are compared with observational data in a case of nonprecipitating convection in a tropical boundary layer. The model is a slightly improved version of the one developed by Sommeria (1976) in collaboration with J.W. Deardorff. The experimental data come from the NCAR 1972 Puerto Rico experiment which provided a good set of aircraft turbulence measurements in the fair weather mixed layer over the tropical ocean. The comparison involves statistical properties of the turbulent field as well as some structural features in the presence of small clouds.
Abstract
Results from a detailed three-dimensional model of the atmospheric boundary layer are compared with observational data in a case of nonprecipitating convection in a tropical boundary layer. The model is a slightly improved version of the one developed by Sommeria (1976) in collaboration with J.W. Deardorff. The experimental data come from the NCAR 1972 Puerto Rico experiment which provided a good set of aircraft turbulence measurements in the fair weather mixed layer over the tropical ocean. The comparison involves statistical properties of the turbulent field as well as some structural features in the presence of small clouds.
Abstract
The structure of the convective atmospheric boundary layer and the characteristics of the associated turbulent mixing processes in undisturbed conditions over the tropical ocean are investigated using data collected during the GARP Atlantic Tropical Experiment (GATE). The data were obtained by a number of aircraft equipped with turbulence measuring instrumentation. The fluxes of momentum, sensible and latent heat throughout the subcloud layer are presented for four cases considered in detail. It is shown that the sensible and latent heat fluxes at the top of the mixed layer (and therefore the distribution of heating and moistening in the boundary layer) are strongly affected by the presence or absence of cumulus convection while the virtual heat flux remains unaffected. Features of this cloud-subcloud interaction are discussed in the light of Betts (1976) coupled cloud-subcloud layer model.
An examination of the spectra (and cospectra) of subcloud-layer variables shows that with the exception of vertical velocity, the spectra are generally dominated by low-frequency fluctuations. This behavior is attributed to the effects of entrainment which may produce relatively large, long-lived excursions from the mixed-layer average in the weakly mixed GATE boundary layer and to the existence of mesoscale (∼10 km) variability.
Wherever possible comparisons are drawn with previous measurements and corresponding situations over land, where mixing processes are usually much more energetic. Aircraft measurements of the sensible and latent heat fluxes are compared with those derived from tethered balloon probes and budget calculations which were employed concurrently during GATE. Aircraft and tethered balloon fluxes showed good agreement; however, the budget results differ, probably due to a different sampling strategy.
Abstract
The structure of the convective atmospheric boundary layer and the characteristics of the associated turbulent mixing processes in undisturbed conditions over the tropical ocean are investigated using data collected during the GARP Atlantic Tropical Experiment (GATE). The data were obtained by a number of aircraft equipped with turbulence measuring instrumentation. The fluxes of momentum, sensible and latent heat throughout the subcloud layer are presented for four cases considered in detail. It is shown that the sensible and latent heat fluxes at the top of the mixed layer (and therefore the distribution of heating and moistening in the boundary layer) are strongly affected by the presence or absence of cumulus convection while the virtual heat flux remains unaffected. Features of this cloud-subcloud interaction are discussed in the light of Betts (1976) coupled cloud-subcloud layer model.
An examination of the spectra (and cospectra) of subcloud-layer variables shows that with the exception of vertical velocity, the spectra are generally dominated by low-frequency fluctuations. This behavior is attributed to the effects of entrainment which may produce relatively large, long-lived excursions from the mixed-layer average in the weakly mixed GATE boundary layer and to the existence of mesoscale (∼10 km) variability.
Wherever possible comparisons are drawn with previous measurements and corresponding situations over land, where mixing processes are usually much more energetic. Aircraft measurements of the sensible and latent heat fluxes are compared with those derived from tethered balloon probes and budget calculations which were employed concurrently during GATE. Aircraft and tethered balloon fluxes showed good agreement; however, the budget results differ, probably due to a different sampling strategy.
Abstract
The relationship of satellite-derived cloud motions to actual convective systems within a convectively active phase of the intraseasonal oscillation is examined by using both cloud-scale properties produced by a cloud-resolving model and field observations to clarify what is going on at shorter time- and space scales. Each convective system has a life cycle of up to 1–2 days. Described in terms of active convection, the system consists of successive precipitation cells generated ahead of the gust front. Described in terms of its cloud shield, the system is more continuous. When easterly winds prevail above 2 km, both precipitating clouds and upper-tropospheric anvil clouds move westward with about the same phase speed (∼10 m s−1). However, during the westerly wind period, precipitating clouds move eastward with a phase speed of ∼10 m s−1, which is better represented by the radar observations and surface precipitation. The westward movement of cloud patterns viewed from the satellite images is mostly due to the horizontal advection of the anvil by the mean flow and the creation of new convective cells to the west of the old convective clouds.
Abstract
The relationship of satellite-derived cloud motions to actual convective systems within a convectively active phase of the intraseasonal oscillation is examined by using both cloud-scale properties produced by a cloud-resolving model and field observations to clarify what is going on at shorter time- and space scales. Each convective system has a life cycle of up to 1–2 days. Described in terms of active convection, the system consists of successive precipitation cells generated ahead of the gust front. Described in terms of its cloud shield, the system is more continuous. When easterly winds prevail above 2 km, both precipitating clouds and upper-tropospheric anvil clouds move westward with about the same phase speed (∼10 m s−1). However, during the westerly wind period, precipitating clouds move eastward with a phase speed of ∼10 m s−1, which is better represented by the radar observations and surface precipitation. The westward movement of cloud patterns viewed from the satellite images is mostly due to the horizontal advection of the anvil by the mean flow and the creation of new convective cells to the west of the old convective clouds.
Abstract
A definite relationship between cloud distribution and sub-cloud layer structure and fluxes in fair weather is documented using measurements of wind, temperature, humidity and overhead cloud occurrence from the NCAR DeHasvilland aircraft. Three cases are used. These were extracted from data taken to the north of Puerto Rico on 14 and 15 December 1972 in mesoscale regions of reasonably uniform convection ranging from suppressed with very little shallow cloudiness to slightly enhanced with active (but non-precipitating) trade cumulus having tops to 2000 m. On both days synoptic conditions were suppressed and the surface winds were from the cast at 10 to 15 m s−1.
In the highly suppressed cases, there is evidence that cloud distribution was determined by subcloud layer circulations—roll vortices which persisted throughout the flight patterns. In the more enhanced case, the predominant coupling was by well-defined cloud scale updrafts which were traceable to at least 100 m below cloud base.
As a consequence of these interactions, the fluxes of moisture and momentum in the upper subcloud layer were found to be strongly coupled to cloud distribution. A comparison of direct measurements from the aircraft and the results of budget computations by other workers for several suppressed situations in the trades suggests that almost all of the fluxes out of the mixed layer are concentrated in mesoscale cloud patches and that a large function of the transport is due to motions on the scale of the individual cumulus.
Abstract
A definite relationship between cloud distribution and sub-cloud layer structure and fluxes in fair weather is documented using measurements of wind, temperature, humidity and overhead cloud occurrence from the NCAR DeHasvilland aircraft. Three cases are used. These were extracted from data taken to the north of Puerto Rico on 14 and 15 December 1972 in mesoscale regions of reasonably uniform convection ranging from suppressed with very little shallow cloudiness to slightly enhanced with active (but non-precipitating) trade cumulus having tops to 2000 m. On both days synoptic conditions were suppressed and the surface winds were from the cast at 10 to 15 m s−1.
In the highly suppressed cases, there is evidence that cloud distribution was determined by subcloud layer circulations—roll vortices which persisted throughout the flight patterns. In the more enhanced case, the predominant coupling was by well-defined cloud scale updrafts which were traceable to at least 100 m below cloud base.
As a consequence of these interactions, the fluxes of moisture and momentum in the upper subcloud layer were found to be strongly coupled to cloud distribution. A comparison of direct measurements from the aircraft and the results of budget computations by other workers for several suppressed situations in the trades suggests that almost all of the fluxes out of the mixed layer are concentrated in mesoscale cloud patches and that a large function of the transport is due to motions on the scale of the individual cumulus.
Abstract
Evidence indicates that fair-weather to towering cumulus clouds over the East Atlantic Ocean during GATE were frequently organized into mesoscale structures. Three examples of such structures are examined, using gust-probe aircraft data collected in parallel straight-and-level flight tracks at 150 m, and covering an area greater than 30×30 km. The aircraft (two cases) or rawinsonde (one case) data provide vertical profiles of mean wind, temperature and mixing ratio. Cloud patterns are revealed from an upward-looking infrared sensor on the aircraft and radar and satellite pictures.
The data show that the cumulus were organized into bands with horizontal wavelengths of 15–25 km. The circulations appear to extend through the subcloud layer, with all the fields at 150 m well related to the cloudiness overhead. Since the circulations are aligned with the subcloud-layer shear and travel in a direction parallel to the subcloud-layer wind (in the two cases for which band movement is documented), it is believed that they are primarily subcloud-layer phenomena. The subcloud-layer depth is about 600 m, giving aspect ratios of the bands from 25 to 50, in the range of mesoscale cellular convection observed in midlatitudes.
Several physical mechanisms which might explain the bands are discussed.
Abstract
Evidence indicates that fair-weather to towering cumulus clouds over the East Atlantic Ocean during GATE were frequently organized into mesoscale structures. Three examples of such structures are examined, using gust-probe aircraft data collected in parallel straight-and-level flight tracks at 150 m, and covering an area greater than 30×30 km. The aircraft (two cases) or rawinsonde (one case) data provide vertical profiles of mean wind, temperature and mixing ratio. Cloud patterns are revealed from an upward-looking infrared sensor on the aircraft and radar and satellite pictures.
The data show that the cumulus were organized into bands with horizontal wavelengths of 15–25 km. The circulations appear to extend through the subcloud layer, with all the fields at 150 m well related to the cloudiness overhead. Since the circulations are aligned with the subcloud-layer shear and travel in a direction parallel to the subcloud-layer wind (in the two cases for which band movement is documented), it is believed that they are primarily subcloud-layer phenomena. The subcloud-layer depth is about 600 m, giving aspect ratios of the bands from 25 to 50, in the range of mesoscale cellular convection observed in midlatitudes.
Several physical mechanisms which might explain the bands are discussed.
Abstract
A performance analysis of the three turbulence-measuring aircraft which participated in the GATE is presented. These aircraft were a Lockheed C-130 operated by the Meteorological Research Flight Centre of the U.K. Meteorological Office, a Douglas DC-6 operated by the Research Flight Facility of the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration, and a Lockheed L-188 operated by the Research Aviation Facility of the National Center for Atmospheric Research.
The results are based on formal intercomparison flights and analysis of fair weather days on which two or more of the aircraft were flying. In the formal intercomparison flights, two or more of the aircraft flew side by side in the fair weather atmospheric mixed layer. In both cases, the aircraft flew L-shaped patterns, consisting of 30 km legs along and normal to the mixed layer wind direction.
Quantities compared include the variances of three wind components, potential temperature, moisture, and the vertical fluxes of horizontal momentum, temperature, and moisture. The analysis shows that when all components of the gust probe system are working properly, interaircraft biases are less than the expected atmospheric variability. Quirks of the three data sets are pointed out for the benefit of future GATE data users.
Abstract
A performance analysis of the three turbulence-measuring aircraft which participated in the GATE is presented. These aircraft were a Lockheed C-130 operated by the Meteorological Research Flight Centre of the U.K. Meteorological Office, a Douglas DC-6 operated by the Research Flight Facility of the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration, and a Lockheed L-188 operated by the Research Aviation Facility of the National Center for Atmospheric Research.
The results are based on formal intercomparison flights and analysis of fair weather days on which two or more of the aircraft were flying. In the formal intercomparison flights, two or more of the aircraft flew side by side in the fair weather atmospheric mixed layer. In both cases, the aircraft flew L-shaped patterns, consisting of 30 km legs along and normal to the mixed layer wind direction.
Quantities compared include the variances of three wind components, potential temperature, moisture, and the vertical fluxes of horizontal momentum, temperature, and moisture. The analysis shows that when all components of the gust probe system are working properly, interaircraft biases are less than the expected atmospheric variability. Quirks of the three data sets are pointed out for the benefit of future GATE data users.
