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Abstract
Maps of hourly precipitation have been prepared for storms during the 1957–1960 Santa Barbara randomized seeding program. In non-seeded storms, they showed that approximately N–S oriented precipitation bands could be tracked eastward across the area. Similar maps for seeded cases showed that the bands were obscured by a strong stationary E–W oriented orographic band (the mountain range is oriented E–W).
Hourly station reports were arrayed in a table for each hour where row averages revealed the amplitude of the orographic effect and column averages that of the band effect. Row variance is related to the energy of the orographic precipitation-producing circulations, column variance to the band energy, and the residual variance, obtained by subtracting row and column variances from the total variance, to the energy of smaller-scale convective circulations. Attention was confined to the 7 hours of heaviest precipitation in each system.
In comparing seeded to non-seeded periods, the mean precipitation rate was more than double, and the total variance was almost five times as great. The proportion of the total variance in orographic form was more than double, the band variance was essentially the same, while the convective variance was less than a third of the non-seeded proportion.
It is concluded that the distribution of energy was shifted from smaller to larger scale circulation systems in going from non-seeded to seeded cases. The practical implications with respect to cloud seeding are discussed and illustrated by the results from two seasons of single generator tests made in the 1957–1959 period in the San Gabriel watershed near Los Angeles.
Abstract
Maps of hourly precipitation have been prepared for storms during the 1957–1960 Santa Barbara randomized seeding program. In non-seeded storms, they showed that approximately N–S oriented precipitation bands could be tracked eastward across the area. Similar maps for seeded cases showed that the bands were obscured by a strong stationary E–W oriented orographic band (the mountain range is oriented E–W).
Hourly station reports were arrayed in a table for each hour where row averages revealed the amplitude of the orographic effect and column averages that of the band effect. Row variance is related to the energy of the orographic precipitation-producing circulations, column variance to the band energy, and the residual variance, obtained by subtracting row and column variances from the total variance, to the energy of smaller-scale convective circulations. Attention was confined to the 7 hours of heaviest precipitation in each system.
In comparing seeded to non-seeded periods, the mean precipitation rate was more than double, and the total variance was almost five times as great. The proportion of the total variance in orographic form was more than double, the band variance was essentially the same, while the convective variance was less than a third of the non-seeded proportion.
It is concluded that the distribution of energy was shifted from smaller to larger scale circulation systems in going from non-seeded to seeded cases. The practical implications with respect to cloud seeding are discussed and illustrated by the results from two seasons of single generator tests made in the 1957–1959 period in the San Gabriel watershed near Los Angeles.
Some general characteristics of synoptic developments in the 500 mb vorticity field are discussed with particular attention devoted to sudden injections of vorticity and to changes in circulation patterns downwind therefrom. Attention is then focused on vorticity injections generated at low latitudes, but not too low to interact in an important way with the middle latitude circulation. Composite maps based upon numerous cases are shown which reveal the development of large scale anomalous patterns in the westerlies during the 3 days subsequent to low latitude vorticity injection. The forecasting implications are discussed.
Some general characteristics of synoptic developments in the 500 mb vorticity field are discussed with particular attention devoted to sudden injections of vorticity and to changes in circulation patterns downwind therefrom. Attention is then focused on vorticity injections generated at low latitudes, but not too low to interact in an important way with the middle latitude circulation. Composite maps based upon numerous cases are shown which reveal the development of large scale anomalous patterns in the westerlies during the 3 days subsequent to low latitude vorticity injection. The forecasting implications are discussed.
Abstract
In connection with cloud seeding projects in Pacific Coast states, detailed analyses have been prepared of many storms. From this material, average values of significant parameters have been computed and are employed to construct a model of a typical cold-front-type occlusion moving into the California coast from the west, a type of storm responsible for a substantial fraction of California precipitation.
The model shows some deviations from the classical cold-front-type occlusion, such as the absence of a discernible elevated warm-front surface within 150 mi of the surface cold front. The system is discussed as a steady-state mechanism wherein the generation of liquid moisture in vertical currents is balanced by its removal through precipitation, primarily in the instability zone near the surface front, and by evaporation, primarily in the altostratus zone in advance of the instability zone.
The system being treated as an engine for the production of precipitation reaching the ground, its efficiency is discussed on the basis of simplified calculations of growth of precipitation in relation to ice-forming nuclei supply. It is shown that in this storm model efficiencies are normally well below 100 per cent, and that the introduction of artificial ice-forming nuclei can raise this efficiency markedly.
Abstract
In connection with cloud seeding projects in Pacific Coast states, detailed analyses have been prepared of many storms. From this material, average values of significant parameters have been computed and are employed to construct a model of a typical cold-front-type occlusion moving into the California coast from the west, a type of storm responsible for a substantial fraction of California precipitation.
The model shows some deviations from the classical cold-front-type occlusion, such as the absence of a discernible elevated warm-front surface within 150 mi of the surface cold front. The system is discussed as a steady-state mechanism wherein the generation of liquid moisture in vertical currents is balanced by its removal through precipitation, primarily in the instability zone near the surface front, and by evaporation, primarily in the altostratus zone in advance of the instability zone.
The system being treated as an engine for the production of precipitation reaching the ground, its efficiency is discussed on the basis of simplified calculations of growth of precipitation in relation to ice-forming nuclei supply. It is shown that in this storm model efficiencies are normally well below 100 per cent, and that the introduction of artificial ice-forming nuclei can raise this efficiency markedly.
Abstract
This review provides a sketchy background of orographic weather modification activities prior to the 1960s, followed by a more critical review of major orographic projects carried out and reported in the scientific literature during the past 25 years. In the earlier of these major projects, evaluation of results had been based largely upon comparisons of seeded and nonseeded precipitation experimental units stratified by various sounding-derived parameters in an attempt to amplify the physical significance of the seeding effects within various sub-types of orographic clouds.
The later major projects are still underway with no final evaluations having been presented. However, a wealth of significant data analyses have been reported that provide important insights into the various natural and seeding precipitation mechanisms. Much of this is attributable to the new observational tools in use, which include airborne and ground microphysical sensors, doppler radar, and microwave radiometers.
Abstract
This review provides a sketchy background of orographic weather modification activities prior to the 1960s, followed by a more critical review of major orographic projects carried out and reported in the scientific literature during the past 25 years. In the earlier of these major projects, evaluation of results had been based largely upon comparisons of seeded and nonseeded precipitation experimental units stratified by various sounding-derived parameters in an attempt to amplify the physical significance of the seeding effects within various sub-types of orographic clouds.
The later major projects are still underway with no final evaluations having been presented. However, a wealth of significant data analyses have been reported that provide important insights into the various natural and seeding precipitation mechanisms. Much of this is attributable to the new observational tools in use, which include airborne and ground microphysical sensors, doppler radar, and microwave radiometers.
An analysis of a series of cloud seeding projects conducted in three different Pacific-slope watershed areas, each during several seasons, is presented. Seven separate project-seasons are involved in each of which identical seeding procedures were used. Silver iodide smoke generators were operated at ground level for a total of well over 10,000 generator-hours during these operations.
Snowpack and other official precipitation records are examined and target-to-control-area comparisons made in order to bring out the effects of the seeding and apply statistical tests thereto.
It is concluded that this evaluation procedure, as applied to the available data, is capable of discerning the effectiveness of cloud seeding in increasing precipitation over a period of several seasons, but is not capable of bringing into focus the many details of interest to the cloud seeder.
An analysis of a series of cloud seeding projects conducted in three different Pacific-slope watershed areas, each during several seasons, is presented. Seven separate project-seasons are involved in each of which identical seeding procedures were used. Silver iodide smoke generators were operated at ground level for a total of well over 10,000 generator-hours during these operations.
Snowpack and other official precipitation records are examined and target-to-control-area comparisons made in order to bring out the effects of the seeding and apply statistical tests thereto.
It is concluded that this evaluation procedure, as applied to the available data, is capable of discerning the effectiveness of cloud seeding in increasing precipitation over a period of several seasons, but is not capable of bringing into focus the many details of interest to the cloud seeder.
Abstract
The data source for this study is a collection of five years of serial upper-air soundings taken during storms at five stations in the Southern California coastal and offshore region, along with supporting aerial, radar, and surface precipitation observations.
Detailed analyses of frontal systems revealed mesoscale motions and processes which are an important and integral part of the frontal structure. In particular, the flow pattern within the prefrontal precipitation region is found to be characterized by waves aloft and a matching cell structure below, with wavelength of 200 to 300 km and with crusts oriented parallel to the front. Within these cells are found small convection bands with which are associated sharp peaks in the precipitation distribution. The overall pattern slopes aloft over the front, and this slope, along with horizontal and vertical mixing, is an essential element in the dynamic balance within the frontal zone.
The intensity of the mesoscale vertical motion responsible for clouds and precipitation in the frontal zone appears to have some association with the degree of convective activity. In the stronger fronts, vertical velocity peaks of 20 cm sec−1 or more are found to be the rule.
The thermal balance is dominated largely by vertical differences in horizontal advection which are balanced by convective heat exchange. A strong, low-level current of warm air from the south overridden by cold air from the west determines to varying degrees the convective instability and results in a considerable amount of available potential energy being converted directly into convection-scale kinetic energy, thus by-passing its conversion to the cyclone-scale kinetic energy.
In fronts possessing greater stability, vertical velocities are less and the eastward movement of the front is greater, suggesting that in these cases the broad-scale deformation of the cyclone-scale thermal pattern, which controls the deepening and the occlusion processes, is accelerated.
Abstract
The data source for this study is a collection of five years of serial upper-air soundings taken during storms at five stations in the Southern California coastal and offshore region, along with supporting aerial, radar, and surface precipitation observations.
Detailed analyses of frontal systems revealed mesoscale motions and processes which are an important and integral part of the frontal structure. In particular, the flow pattern within the prefrontal precipitation region is found to be characterized by waves aloft and a matching cell structure below, with wavelength of 200 to 300 km and with crusts oriented parallel to the front. Within these cells are found small convection bands with which are associated sharp peaks in the precipitation distribution. The overall pattern slopes aloft over the front, and this slope, along with horizontal and vertical mixing, is an essential element in the dynamic balance within the frontal zone.
The intensity of the mesoscale vertical motion responsible for clouds and precipitation in the frontal zone appears to have some association with the degree of convective activity. In the stronger fronts, vertical velocity peaks of 20 cm sec−1 or more are found to be the rule.
The thermal balance is dominated largely by vertical differences in horizontal advection which are balanced by convective heat exchange. A strong, low-level current of warm air from the south overridden by cold air from the west determines to varying degrees the convective instability and results in a considerable amount of available potential energy being converted directly into convection-scale kinetic energy, thus by-passing its conversion to the cyclone-scale kinetic energy.
In fronts possessing greater stability, vertical velocities are less and the eastward movement of the front is greater, suggesting that in these cases the broad-scale deformation of the cyclone-scale thermal pattern, which controls the deepening and the occlusion processes, is accelerated.
Abstract
Pacific storms entering Southern California have been intensely sampled and subjected to detailed investigation through a storm study program in the Santa Barbara area during the 1960–63 (inclusive) winter storm seasons.
One result which has emerged from the analyses of precipitation and upper-air data was the discovery that organized convection bands were a common feature within the main precipitation region. These bands were detected from storm precipitation distributions, which, through quasi-objective methods, have been separated into the following three components: storm mean motion precipitation, orographic precipitation, and convection band precipitation.
The typical convection bands appear to be 20 to 40 miles wide, centered some 30 to 60 miles apart, oriented along the upper shear vector (between winds in the convective cloud layers and the adjacent layer above), and moving along a direction of the lower shear vector. There is evidence that the increased convective activity within the bands is associated primarily with the destabilization of the air mass through differential thermal advection.
Abstract
Pacific storms entering Southern California have been intensely sampled and subjected to detailed investigation through a storm study program in the Santa Barbara area during the 1960–63 (inclusive) winter storm seasons.
One result which has emerged from the analyses of precipitation and upper-air data was the discovery that organized convection bands were a common feature within the main precipitation region. These bands were detected from storm precipitation distributions, which, through quasi-objective methods, have been separated into the following three components: storm mean motion precipitation, orographic precipitation, and convection band precipitation.
The typical convection bands appear to be 20 to 40 miles wide, centered some 30 to 60 miles apart, oriented along the upper shear vector (between winds in the convective cloud layers and the adjacent layer above), and moving along a direction of the lower shear vector. There is evidence that the increased convective activity within the bands is associated primarily with the destabilization of the air mass through differential thermal advection.
Abstract
A significant question bearing on the prediction of orographic precipitation and the seeding of orographic clouds is what fraction of the water condensed over an orographic barrier falls on the barrier as precipitation. This has been treated in a rather inadequate manner to date, largely because of lack of basic data.
Through the use of abundant storm-sounding data taken upwind of two Southern California orographic barriers and data from the corresponding mountain recording raingage networks, comparisons of computed condensation and observed precipitation have been made for a number of winter storms over a four-year period. The results indicate that approximately one quarter of the orographically produced condensate fell as precipitation on the watersheds.
A breakdown into air mass stability on the basis of the inflow rawinsonde data showed that, for similar orographic flow conditions, more precipitation was produced by unstable air masses than by stable air masses.
Abstract
A significant question bearing on the prediction of orographic precipitation and the seeding of orographic clouds is what fraction of the water condensed over an orographic barrier falls on the barrier as precipitation. This has been treated in a rather inadequate manner to date, largely because of lack of basic data.
Through the use of abundant storm-sounding data taken upwind of two Southern California orographic barriers and data from the corresponding mountain recording raingage networks, comparisons of computed condensation and observed precipitation have been made for a number of winter storms over a four-year period. The results indicate that approximately one quarter of the orographically produced condensate fell as precipitation on the watersheds.
A breakdown into air mass stability on the basis of the inflow rawinsonde data showed that, for similar orographic flow conditions, more precipitation was produced by unstable air masses than by stable air masses.
