Search Results
You are looking at 1 - 4 of 4 items for :
- Author or Editor: Ulrike Burkhardt x
- Article x
- Refine by Access: All Content x
Abstract
The mixing-length-based parameterization of horizontal diffusion, which was originally proposed by Smagorinsky, is revisited. The complete tendencies of horizontal momentum diffusion, the associated frictional heating, and horizontal diffusion of sensible heat in spherical geometry are derived. The formulations are modified for the terrain-following vertical-hybrid-coordinate system in a way that ensures energy and angular momentum conservation at each layer. Test simulations with a simple general circulation model, run at T42 horizontal resolution and for permanent January conditions, confirm the conservation properties and highlight the enhancement of nonlinear horizontal diffusion in areas of high baroclinic activity. The simulated internal variability is dependent on the nature of the horizontal diffusion, with high-frequency variability being enhanced over the northern continents and low-frequency variability being increased (decreased) over the Pacific (Atlantic) Ocean when using nonlinear rather than linear diffusion. Locally reduced horizontal dissipation over Europe is compensated by increased dissipation owing to vertical diffusion, indicating the potential importance of nonlinear horizontal diffusion for gravity wave–resolving simulations. Inspection of the spectral energy reveals that the scheme needs to be modified in order to damp unbalanced ageostrophic motions at the smallest resolved scales more efficiently. A corresponding empirical modification is proposed and proves to work properly.
Abstract
The mixing-length-based parameterization of horizontal diffusion, which was originally proposed by Smagorinsky, is revisited. The complete tendencies of horizontal momentum diffusion, the associated frictional heating, and horizontal diffusion of sensible heat in spherical geometry are derived. The formulations are modified for the terrain-following vertical-hybrid-coordinate system in a way that ensures energy and angular momentum conservation at each layer. Test simulations with a simple general circulation model, run at T42 horizontal resolution and for permanent January conditions, confirm the conservation properties and highlight the enhancement of nonlinear horizontal diffusion in areas of high baroclinic activity. The simulated internal variability is dependent on the nature of the horizontal diffusion, with high-frequency variability being enhanced over the northern continents and low-frequency variability being increased (decreased) over the Pacific (Atlantic) Ocean when using nonlinear rather than linear diffusion. Locally reduced horizontal dissipation over Europe is compensated by increased dissipation owing to vertical diffusion, indicating the potential importance of nonlinear horizontal diffusion for gravity wave–resolving simulations. Inspection of the spectral energy reveals that the scheme needs to be modified in order to damp unbalanced ageostrophic motions at the smallest resolved scales more efficiently. A corresponding empirical modification is proposed and proves to work properly.
Abstract
The diffusion–dissipation parameterizations usually adopted in GCMs are not physically consistent. Horizontal momentum diffusion, applied in the form of a hyperdiffusion, does not conserve angular momentum and the associated dissipative heating is commonly ignored. Dissipative heating associated with vertical momentum diffusion is often included, but in a way that is inconsistent with the second law of thermodynamics.
New, physically consistent, dissipative heating schemes due to horizontal diffusion (Becker) and vertical diffusion (Becker, and Boville and Bretherton) have been developed and tested. These schemes have now been implemented in 19- and 39-level versions of the ECHAM4 climate model. The new horizontal scheme requires the replacement of the hyperdiffusion with a ∇2 scheme.
Dissipation due to horizontal momentum diffusion is found to have maximum values in the upper troposphere/lower stratosphere in midlatitudes and in the winter hemispheric sponge layer, resulting in a warming of the area around the tropopause and of the polar vortex in Northern Hemispheric winter. Dissipation associated with vertical momentum diffusion is largest in the boundary layer. The change in parameterization acts to strengthen the vertical diffusion and therefore the associated dissipative heating. Dissipation due to vertical momentum diffusion has an indirect effect on the upper-tropospheric/stratospheric temperature field in northern winter, which is to cool and strengthen the northern polar vortex. The warming in the area of the tropopause resulting from the change in both dissipation parameterizations is quite similar in both model versions, whereas the response in the temperature of the northern polar vortex depends on the model version.
Abstract
The diffusion–dissipation parameterizations usually adopted in GCMs are not physically consistent. Horizontal momentum diffusion, applied in the form of a hyperdiffusion, does not conserve angular momentum and the associated dissipative heating is commonly ignored. Dissipative heating associated with vertical momentum diffusion is often included, but in a way that is inconsistent with the second law of thermodynamics.
New, physically consistent, dissipative heating schemes due to horizontal diffusion (Becker) and vertical diffusion (Becker, and Boville and Bretherton) have been developed and tested. These schemes have now been implemented in 19- and 39-level versions of the ECHAM4 climate model. The new horizontal scheme requires the replacement of the hyperdiffusion with a ∇2 scheme.
Dissipation due to horizontal momentum diffusion is found to have maximum values in the upper troposphere/lower stratosphere in midlatitudes and in the winter hemispheric sponge layer, resulting in a warming of the area around the tropopause and of the polar vortex in Northern Hemispheric winter. Dissipation associated with vertical momentum diffusion is largest in the boundary layer. The change in parameterization acts to strengthen the vertical diffusion and therefore the associated dissipative heating. Dissipation due to vertical momentum diffusion has an indirect effect on the upper-tropospheric/stratospheric temperature field in northern winter, which is to cool and strengthen the northern polar vortex. The warming in the area of the tropopause resulting from the change in both dissipation parameterizations is quite similar in both model versions, whereas the response in the temperature of the northern polar vortex depends on the model version.
Despite considerable technological advances, aviation impacts on global climate are significant and may constitute a future constraint on the continued growth of air travel. The most important but least understood component in aviation climate impact assessments are contrails, which form as line-shaped ice clouds (linear contrails) and transform into irregularly shaped ice clouds (contrail cirrus) in favorable meteorological conditions. No reliable best estimate of the contribution of contrail cirrus to climate change exists, but statistical evidence from cirrus trend analyses suggests a potentially large contribution. This article reviews the scientific knowledge and key problems regarding the modeling of the life cycle of contrail cirrus (including linear contrails), their global climate impact, and the validation of model simulations with suitable observational datasets. The prerequisites for global modeling of contrail cirrus, such as the representation of ice supersaturation and the processes governing contrail cirrus evolution as well as improvements in the cloud schemes regarding cirrus, are discussed. Recommendations are given for avenues of research to ensure that future decisions aimed at mitigating the climate impact of contrails and contrail cirrus are based on increasingly sound scientific knowledge.
Despite considerable technological advances, aviation impacts on global climate are significant and may constitute a future constraint on the continued growth of air travel. The most important but least understood component in aviation climate impact assessments are contrails, which form as line-shaped ice clouds (linear contrails) and transform into irregularly shaped ice clouds (contrail cirrus) in favorable meteorological conditions. No reliable best estimate of the contribution of contrail cirrus to climate change exists, but statistical evidence from cirrus trend analyses suggests a potentially large contribution. This article reviews the scientific knowledge and key problems regarding the modeling of the life cycle of contrail cirrus (including linear contrails), their global climate impact, and the validation of model simulations with suitable observational datasets. The prerequisites for global modeling of contrail cirrus, such as the representation of ice supersaturation and the processes governing contrail cirrus evolution as well as improvements in the cloud schemes regarding cirrus, are discussed. Recommendations are given for avenues of research to ensure that future decisions aimed at mitigating the climate impact of contrails and contrail cirrus are based on increasingly sound scientific knowledge.
Abstract
Evidence from previous climate model simulations has suggested a potentially low efficacy of contrails to force global mean surface temperature changes. In this paper, a climate model with a state-of-the-art contrail cirrus representation is used for fixed sea surface temperature simulations in order to determine the effective radiative forcing (ERF) from contrail cirrus. ERF is expected to be a good metric for intercomparing the quantitative importance of different contributions to surface temperature and climate impact. Substantial upscaling of aviation density is necessary to ensure statistically significant results from our simulations. The contrail cirrus ERF is found to be less than 50% of the respective instantaneous or stratosphere adjusted radiative forcings, with a best estimate of roughly 35%. The reduction of ERF is much more substantial for contrail cirrus than it is for a CO2 increase when both stratosphere adjusted forcings are of similar magnitude. Analysis of all rapid radiative adjustments contributing to the ERF indicates that the reduction is mainly induced by a compensating effect of natural clouds that provide a negative feedback. Compared to the CO2 reference case, a less positive combined water vapor and lapse rate adjustment also contributes to a more distinct reduction of contrail cirrus ERF, but not as much as the natural cloud adjustment. Based on the experience gained in this paper, respective contrail cirrus simulations with interactive ocean will be performed as the next step toward establishing contrail cirrus efficacy. ERF results of contrail cirrus from other climate models equipped with suitable parameterizations are regarded as highly desirable.
Abstract
Evidence from previous climate model simulations has suggested a potentially low efficacy of contrails to force global mean surface temperature changes. In this paper, a climate model with a state-of-the-art contrail cirrus representation is used for fixed sea surface temperature simulations in order to determine the effective radiative forcing (ERF) from contrail cirrus. ERF is expected to be a good metric for intercomparing the quantitative importance of different contributions to surface temperature and climate impact. Substantial upscaling of aviation density is necessary to ensure statistically significant results from our simulations. The contrail cirrus ERF is found to be less than 50% of the respective instantaneous or stratosphere adjusted radiative forcings, with a best estimate of roughly 35%. The reduction of ERF is much more substantial for contrail cirrus than it is for a CO2 increase when both stratosphere adjusted forcings are of similar magnitude. Analysis of all rapid radiative adjustments contributing to the ERF indicates that the reduction is mainly induced by a compensating effect of natural clouds that provide a negative feedback. Compared to the CO2 reference case, a less positive combined water vapor and lapse rate adjustment also contributes to a more distinct reduction of contrail cirrus ERF, but not as much as the natural cloud adjustment. Based on the experience gained in this paper, respective contrail cirrus simulations with interactive ocean will be performed as the next step toward establishing contrail cirrus efficacy. ERF results of contrail cirrus from other climate models equipped with suitable parameterizations are regarded as highly desirable.
