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- Author or Editor: Wei Li x
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Abstract
On the basis of the similarity theory of the atmospheric surface layer and the mass conservation principle, a new scheme using a variational method is developed to estimate the surface momentum and sensible and latent heat fluxes. In this scheme, the mass conservation is introduced into the cost function as a weak physical constraint, which leads to an overdetermined system. For the variational method with mass conservation constraint, only the conventional meteorological observational data are taken into account. Data collected in the Yellow River Source Region Climate and Environment Observation and Research Station at Maqu, China, during 11–25 August 2010 are used to test this new scheme. Results indicate that this scheme is more reliable and accurate than both the flux-profile method and the variational method without mass conservation constraint. In addition, the effect of the weights in the cost function is examined. Sensitivity tests show that the fluxes estimated by the proposed scheme are insensitive to the stability functions explored in the cost function and measurement errors.
Abstract
On the basis of the similarity theory of the atmospheric surface layer and the mass conservation principle, a new scheme using a variational method is developed to estimate the surface momentum and sensible and latent heat fluxes. In this scheme, the mass conservation is introduced into the cost function as a weak physical constraint, which leads to an overdetermined system. For the variational method with mass conservation constraint, only the conventional meteorological observational data are taken into account. Data collected in the Yellow River Source Region Climate and Environment Observation and Research Station at Maqu, China, during 11–25 August 2010 are used to test this new scheme. Results indicate that this scheme is more reliable and accurate than both the flux-profile method and the variational method without mass conservation constraint. In addition, the effect of the weights in the cost function is examined. Sensitivity tests show that the fluxes estimated by the proposed scheme are insensitive to the stability functions explored in the cost function and measurement errors.
Abstract
This study examines the validity and limitations associated with retrieval of cloud optical depth τ and effective droplet size r e in the Arctic from Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) channels 2 (0.725–1.10 μm), 3 (3.55–3.93 μm), and 4 (10.3–11.3 μm). The error in r e is found to be normally less than 10%, but the uncertainty in τ can be more than 50% for a 10% uncertainty in the satellite-measured radiance. Model simulations show that the satellite-retrieved cloud optical depth τ sat is overestimated by up to 20% if the vertical cloud inhomogeneity is ignored and is underestimated by more than 50% if overlap of cirrus and liquid water clouds is ignored. Under partially cloudy conditions, τ sat is larger than that derived from surface-measured downward solar irradiance (τ surf) by 40%–130%, depending on cloud-cover fraction. Here, τ sat derived from NOAA-14 AVHRR data agrees well with τ surf derived from surface measurements of solar irradiance at the Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean (SHEBA) ice camp in summer, but τ sat is about 2.3 times τ surf before the onset of snowmelt. This overestimate of τ sat is mainly due to the high reflectivity in AVHRR channel 2 over snow/ice surfaces, the presence of partial cloud cover, and inaccurate representation of the scattering phase function for mixed-phase clouds.
Abstract
This study examines the validity and limitations associated with retrieval of cloud optical depth τ and effective droplet size r e in the Arctic from Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) channels 2 (0.725–1.10 μm), 3 (3.55–3.93 μm), and 4 (10.3–11.3 μm). The error in r e is found to be normally less than 10%, but the uncertainty in τ can be more than 50% for a 10% uncertainty in the satellite-measured radiance. Model simulations show that the satellite-retrieved cloud optical depth τ sat is overestimated by up to 20% if the vertical cloud inhomogeneity is ignored and is underestimated by more than 50% if overlap of cirrus and liquid water clouds is ignored. Under partially cloudy conditions, τ sat is larger than that derived from surface-measured downward solar irradiance (τ surf) by 40%–130%, depending on cloud-cover fraction. Here, τ sat derived from NOAA-14 AVHRR data agrees well with τ surf derived from surface measurements of solar irradiance at the Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean (SHEBA) ice camp in summer, but τ sat is about 2.3 times τ surf before the onset of snowmelt. This overestimate of τ sat is mainly due to the high reflectivity in AVHRR channel 2 over snow/ice surfaces, the presence of partial cloud cover, and inaccurate representation of the scattering phase function for mixed-phase clouds.
Abstract
Based on daily meteorological observation data in South China (SC) from 1967 to 2018, the spatiotemporal characteristics of the precipitation in SC over the past 52 years were studied. Only 8% of the stations showed a significant increase in annual rainfall, and there was no significant negative trend at any weather stations at a confidence level of 90%. Monthly rainfall showed the most significant decreasing and increasing trends in April and November, respectively. During the entire flooding season from April to September, the monthly rainfall at the weather stations in the coastal areas showed almost no significant change. The annual rainfall gradually decreased toward the inland area with the central and coastal areas of Guangdong Province as the high-value rainfall center. By using the empirical orthogonal function decomposition method, it was found that the two main monthly rainfall modes had strong annual signals. The first modal spatial distribution was basically consistent with the average annual rainfall distribution. Based on the environmental background analysis, it was found that during the flooding season the main water vapor to SC was transported by the East Asian summer monsoon and the Indian summer monsoon. In late autumn and winter, the prevailing wind from northeastern China could not bring much water vapor to SC and led to little precipitation in these two seasons. The spatial distribution of precipitation in SC during summer was more consistent with the moisture flux divergence distribution of the bottom layer from 925 to 1000 hPa rather than that of the layer from 700 to 1000 hPa.
Abstract
Based on daily meteorological observation data in South China (SC) from 1967 to 2018, the spatiotemporal characteristics of the precipitation in SC over the past 52 years were studied. Only 8% of the stations showed a significant increase in annual rainfall, and there was no significant negative trend at any weather stations at a confidence level of 90%. Monthly rainfall showed the most significant decreasing and increasing trends in April and November, respectively. During the entire flooding season from April to September, the monthly rainfall at the weather stations in the coastal areas showed almost no significant change. The annual rainfall gradually decreased toward the inland area with the central and coastal areas of Guangdong Province as the high-value rainfall center. By using the empirical orthogonal function decomposition method, it was found that the two main monthly rainfall modes had strong annual signals. The first modal spatial distribution was basically consistent with the average annual rainfall distribution. Based on the environmental background analysis, it was found that during the flooding season the main water vapor to SC was transported by the East Asian summer monsoon and the Indian summer monsoon. In late autumn and winter, the prevailing wind from northeastern China could not bring much water vapor to SC and led to little precipitation in these two seasons. The spatial distribution of precipitation in SC during summer was more consistent with the moisture flux divergence distribution of the bottom layer from 925 to 1000 hPa rather than that of the layer from 700 to 1000 hPa.
Abstract
A statistical analysis of tropical upper-tropospheric trough (TUTT) cells over the western North Pacific Ocean (WNP) during 2006 to 2015 is performed using the NCEP Final reanalysis. A total of 369 TUTT-cell events or 6836 TUTT cells are identified, with a peak frequency in July. Most TUTT cells form to the east of 150°E and then move southwestward with a mean speed of 6.6 m s−1 and a mean life span of 4.4 days. About 75% of the TUTT cells have radii of <500 km with 200-hPa central heights of <1239.4 dam. In general, TUTT cells exhibit negative height anomalies above 450 hPa, with their peak amplitudes at 200 hPa, pronounced cold anomalies in the 650–200-hPa layer, and significant cyclonic vorticity in the 550–125-hPa layer. A comparison of the composite TUTT cells among the eastern, central, and western WNP areas shows the generation of an intense cold-cored vortex as a result of the southward penetration of a midlatitude trough into a climatological TUTT over the eastern WNP region. The TUTT cell with pronounced rotation is cut off from the midlatitude westerlies after moving to the central WNP region, where it enters its mature phase, under the influence of northeasterly flow. The TUTT cell weakens in rotation and shrinks in size, diminishing within the TUTT after arriving at the western WNP region. Results suggest that, although most TUTT cells may diminish before reaching the western WNP, their vertical influences may extend to the surface layer and last longer than their signals at 200 hPa.
Abstract
A statistical analysis of tropical upper-tropospheric trough (TUTT) cells over the western North Pacific Ocean (WNP) during 2006 to 2015 is performed using the NCEP Final reanalysis. A total of 369 TUTT-cell events or 6836 TUTT cells are identified, with a peak frequency in July. Most TUTT cells form to the east of 150°E and then move southwestward with a mean speed of 6.6 m s−1 and a mean life span of 4.4 days. About 75% of the TUTT cells have radii of <500 km with 200-hPa central heights of <1239.4 dam. In general, TUTT cells exhibit negative height anomalies above 450 hPa, with their peak amplitudes at 200 hPa, pronounced cold anomalies in the 650–200-hPa layer, and significant cyclonic vorticity in the 550–125-hPa layer. A comparison of the composite TUTT cells among the eastern, central, and western WNP areas shows the generation of an intense cold-cored vortex as a result of the southward penetration of a midlatitude trough into a climatological TUTT over the eastern WNP region. The TUTT cell with pronounced rotation is cut off from the midlatitude westerlies after moving to the central WNP region, where it enters its mature phase, under the influence of northeasterly flow. The TUTT cell weakens in rotation and shrinks in size, diminishing within the TUTT after arriving at the western WNP region. Results suggest that, although most TUTT cells may diminish before reaching the western WNP, their vertical influences may extend to the surface layer and last longer than their signals at 200 hPa.
Abstract
The southwest vortex (SWV) is a critical weather system in China, but our knowledge of this system remains incomplete. Here, we investigate the cloud properties in the SWV. First, we search for the SWVs with time steps and center locations that are consistent between the SWV yearbook and ERA-Interim reanalysis data. Second, we supplement these SWVs’ life spans and movement paths. Third, we relocate the Fengyun (FY) satellite FY-4A cloud retrievals in the 10° × 10° region centered on each SWV and analyze the cloud occurrence frequency (COF), cloud-top height (CTH), and cloud optical thickness (COT). A distribution mode of cloud types is summarized from the COFs, with water clouds, supercooled clouds, mixed clouds, ice clouds, cirrus clouds, and overlap clouds occurring sequentially from west to east. The CTH probability density (PD) distribution features a significant north–south difference. In addition, the COT PD distributions exhibit a common trend: with increasing COT, the PD increases rapidly and then slowly before peaking, whereupon the PD decreases abruptly. From spring to summer, the region with the highest convective COF shifts from the northeast to the northwest, and an east–west gradient of the convective COF appears in autumn and winter. Furthermore, we investigate the cloud properties during SWV-related heavy rainfall. Heavy rain occurs mainly in the west of the SWV, and convective clouds are mainly in the northwest, partly in the southwest and near the SWV center. The average CTH in heavy rainfall is generally higher than 6 km, and the average COT is greater than 20.
Significance Statement
The southwest vortex (SWV) is an important weather system in China. However, we do not yet comprehensively know this weather system. The cloud properties can indicate the structures of weather systems and are key parameters in numerical weather prediction (NWP) models. Thus, investigating cloud properties is necessary and meaningful to understand the SWV and accurately predict SWV-related precipitation in NWP models. In this paper, a typical distribution mode of six cloud types in the SWV is summarized from the cloud occurrence frequency, and the distribution features of convective clouds, cloud-top height, and cloud optical thickness in the SWV are analyzed. Furthermore, the cloud properties in SWV-related heavy rain are also studied.
Abstract
The southwest vortex (SWV) is a critical weather system in China, but our knowledge of this system remains incomplete. Here, we investigate the cloud properties in the SWV. First, we search for the SWVs with time steps and center locations that are consistent between the SWV yearbook and ERA-Interim reanalysis data. Second, we supplement these SWVs’ life spans and movement paths. Third, we relocate the Fengyun (FY) satellite FY-4A cloud retrievals in the 10° × 10° region centered on each SWV and analyze the cloud occurrence frequency (COF), cloud-top height (CTH), and cloud optical thickness (COT). A distribution mode of cloud types is summarized from the COFs, with water clouds, supercooled clouds, mixed clouds, ice clouds, cirrus clouds, and overlap clouds occurring sequentially from west to east. The CTH probability density (PD) distribution features a significant north–south difference. In addition, the COT PD distributions exhibit a common trend: with increasing COT, the PD increases rapidly and then slowly before peaking, whereupon the PD decreases abruptly. From spring to summer, the region with the highest convective COF shifts from the northeast to the northwest, and an east–west gradient of the convective COF appears in autumn and winter. Furthermore, we investigate the cloud properties during SWV-related heavy rainfall. Heavy rain occurs mainly in the west of the SWV, and convective clouds are mainly in the northwest, partly in the southwest and near the SWV center. The average CTH in heavy rainfall is generally higher than 6 km, and the average COT is greater than 20.
Significance Statement
The southwest vortex (SWV) is an important weather system in China. However, we do not yet comprehensively know this weather system. The cloud properties can indicate the structures of weather systems and are key parameters in numerical weather prediction (NWP) models. Thus, investigating cloud properties is necessary and meaningful to understand the SWV and accurately predict SWV-related precipitation in NWP models. In this paper, a typical distribution mode of six cloud types in the SWV is summarized from the cloud occurrence frequency, and the distribution features of convective clouds, cloud-top height, and cloud optical thickness in the SWV are analyzed. Furthermore, the cloud properties in SWV-related heavy rain are also studied.
Abstract
Fujian Province in southeastern coastal China is a relatively clean region with low emissions, as its high altitude isolates it from the rest of the country. However, the region experienced haze episodes on 3–14 December 2013. The authors performed simulations using the Weather Research and Forecasting Model coupled with chemistry (WRF-Chem) to examine the impacts of meteorological conditions, aerosol radiative feedbacks (ARFs; including aerosol direct and nearly first indirect effect), and internal and external emissions reduction scenarios on particulate matter smaller than 2.5 μm (PM2.5) concentrations. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first time the WRF-Chem model has been used to study air quality in this region. The model reasonably reproduced the meteorological conditions and PM2.5 concentrations. The analysis demonstrated that the highest-PM2.5 event was associated with a cold surge that promoted the impingement of northern pollutants on the region, and PM2.5 concentrations were sensitive to the emissions from the Yangtze River delta (16.6%) and the North China Plain (12.1%). This suggests that efforts toward coastal air quality improvement require regional cooperation to reduce emissions. Noticeably, ARFs were unlikely to increase PM2.5 concentrations in the coastal region, which was in contrast to the case in northern China. ARFs induced strong clean wind anomalies in the coastal region and also lowered the inland planetary boundary layer, which enhanced the blocking of northern pollutants crossing the high terrain in the north of Fujian Province. This indicates that ARFs tend to weaken the haze intensity in the southeastern coastal region.
Abstract
Fujian Province in southeastern coastal China is a relatively clean region with low emissions, as its high altitude isolates it from the rest of the country. However, the region experienced haze episodes on 3–14 December 2013. The authors performed simulations using the Weather Research and Forecasting Model coupled with chemistry (WRF-Chem) to examine the impacts of meteorological conditions, aerosol radiative feedbacks (ARFs; including aerosol direct and nearly first indirect effect), and internal and external emissions reduction scenarios on particulate matter smaller than 2.5 μm (PM2.5) concentrations. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first time the WRF-Chem model has been used to study air quality in this region. The model reasonably reproduced the meteorological conditions and PM2.5 concentrations. The analysis demonstrated that the highest-PM2.5 event was associated with a cold surge that promoted the impingement of northern pollutants on the region, and PM2.5 concentrations were sensitive to the emissions from the Yangtze River delta (16.6%) and the North China Plain (12.1%). This suggests that efforts toward coastal air quality improvement require regional cooperation to reduce emissions. Noticeably, ARFs were unlikely to increase PM2.5 concentrations in the coastal region, which was in contrast to the case in northern China. ARFs induced strong clean wind anomalies in the coastal region and also lowered the inland planetary boundary layer, which enhanced the blocking of northern pollutants crossing the high terrain in the north of Fujian Province. This indicates that ARFs tend to weaken the haze intensity in the southeastern coastal region.
Abstract
On urban scales, the detailed characteristics of land-use information and building properties are vital to improving the meteorological model. The WRF Model with high-spatial-resolution urban fraction (UF) and urban morphology (UM) is used to study the impacts of these urban canopy parameters (UCPs) on dynamical and thermal meteorological fields in two representative seasons in Guangzhou. The results of two seasons are similar and as follows. 1) The impacts of updated UF and UM are obvious on wind speed but minor on temperature and humidity. In the urban environment, the results with updated UF and UM are more consistent with observations compared with the default UCPs, which means the performance of the model has been improved. 2) The dynamical factors associated with wind speed are analyzed. Turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) is significantly affected by UM but little by UF. And both UF and UM are found to influence friction velocity U*. The UM and greater UF attained larger U*. 3) In addition, the thermal fields are analyzed. The UM and increased UF induce higher surface skin temperature (TSK) and ground heat flux in the daytime, indicating that more heat is transported from the surface to the soil. At night, more heat is transported from the soil to the surface, producing higher TSK. For sensible heat flux (HFX), greater UF induces larger HFX during the daytime. But the effects of UM are complex, which makes HFX decrease during the daytime and increase at night. Finally, larger UF attains lower latent heat in the daytime.
Abstract
On urban scales, the detailed characteristics of land-use information and building properties are vital to improving the meteorological model. The WRF Model with high-spatial-resolution urban fraction (UF) and urban morphology (UM) is used to study the impacts of these urban canopy parameters (UCPs) on dynamical and thermal meteorological fields in two representative seasons in Guangzhou. The results of two seasons are similar and as follows. 1) The impacts of updated UF and UM are obvious on wind speed but minor on temperature and humidity. In the urban environment, the results with updated UF and UM are more consistent with observations compared with the default UCPs, which means the performance of the model has been improved. 2) The dynamical factors associated with wind speed are analyzed. Turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) is significantly affected by UM but little by UF. And both UF and UM are found to influence friction velocity U*. The UM and greater UF attained larger U*. 3) In addition, the thermal fields are analyzed. The UM and increased UF induce higher surface skin temperature (TSK) and ground heat flux in the daytime, indicating that more heat is transported from the surface to the soil. At night, more heat is transported from the soil to the surface, producing higher TSK. For sensible heat flux (HFX), greater UF induces larger HFX during the daytime. But the effects of UM are complex, which makes HFX decrease during the daytime and increase at night. Finally, larger UF attains lower latent heat in the daytime.
Abstract
The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) measurements from the NASA Earth Observing System Aqua satellite enable global monitoring of the distribution of clouds during day and night. The MODIS is able to provide a high-spatial-resolution (1–5 km) cloud mask, cloud classification mask, cloud-phase mask, cloud-top pressure (CTP), and effective cloud amount during both the daytime and the nighttime, as well as cloud particle size (CPS) and cloud optical thickness (COT) at 0.55 μm during the daytime. The AIRS high-spectral-resolution measurements reveal cloud properties with coarser spatial resolution (13.5 km at nadir). Combined, MODIS and AIRS provide cloud microphysical properties during both the daytime and nighttime. A fast cloudy radiative transfer model for AIRS that accounts for cloud scattering and absorption is described in this paper. One-dimensional variational (1DVAR) and minimum-residual (MR) methods are used to retrieve the CPS and COT from AIRS longwave window region (790–970 cm−1 or 10.31–12.66 μm, and 1050–1130 cm−1 or 8.85–9.52 μm) cloudy radiance measurements. In both 1DVAR and MR procedures, the CTP is derived from the AIRS radiances of carbon dioxide channels while the cloud-phase information is derived from the collocated MODIS 1-km phase mask for AIRS CPS and COT retrievals. In addition, the collocated 1-km MODIS cloud mask refines the AIRS cloud detection in both 1DVAR and MR procedures. The atmospheric temperature profile, moisture profile, and surface skin temperature used in the AIRS cloud retrieval processing are from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts forecast analysis. The results from 1DVAR are compared with the operational MODIS products and MR cloud microphysical property retrieval. A Hurricane Isabel case study shows that 1DVAR retrievals have a high correlation with either the operational MODIS cloud products or MR cloud property retrievals. 1DVAR provides an efficient way for cloud microphysical property retrieval during the daytime, and MR provides the cloud microphysical property retrievals during both the daytime and nighttime.
Abstract
The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) measurements from the NASA Earth Observing System Aqua satellite enable global monitoring of the distribution of clouds during day and night. The MODIS is able to provide a high-spatial-resolution (1–5 km) cloud mask, cloud classification mask, cloud-phase mask, cloud-top pressure (CTP), and effective cloud amount during both the daytime and the nighttime, as well as cloud particle size (CPS) and cloud optical thickness (COT) at 0.55 μm during the daytime. The AIRS high-spectral-resolution measurements reveal cloud properties with coarser spatial resolution (13.5 km at nadir). Combined, MODIS and AIRS provide cloud microphysical properties during both the daytime and nighttime. A fast cloudy radiative transfer model for AIRS that accounts for cloud scattering and absorption is described in this paper. One-dimensional variational (1DVAR) and minimum-residual (MR) methods are used to retrieve the CPS and COT from AIRS longwave window region (790–970 cm−1 or 10.31–12.66 μm, and 1050–1130 cm−1 or 8.85–9.52 μm) cloudy radiance measurements. In both 1DVAR and MR procedures, the CTP is derived from the AIRS radiances of carbon dioxide channels while the cloud-phase information is derived from the collocated MODIS 1-km phase mask for AIRS CPS and COT retrievals. In addition, the collocated 1-km MODIS cloud mask refines the AIRS cloud detection in both 1DVAR and MR procedures. The atmospheric temperature profile, moisture profile, and surface skin temperature used in the AIRS cloud retrieval processing are from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts forecast analysis. The results from 1DVAR are compared with the operational MODIS products and MR cloud microphysical property retrieval. A Hurricane Isabel case study shows that 1DVAR retrievals have a high correlation with either the operational MODIS cloud products or MR cloud property retrievals. 1DVAR provides an efficient way for cloud microphysical property retrieval during the daytime, and MR provides the cloud microphysical property retrievals during both the daytime and nighttime.
Abstract
Acoustic agglomerations have increasingly attracted widespread attention as a cost-effective and environmentally friendly approach for fog removal and weather modification. In this study, research on precipitation interference and the agglomeration performance of droplet aerosols under large-scale acoustic waves was presented. In total, 49 field experiments in the source region of the Yellow River in the summer of 2019 were performed to reveal the influences of acoustic waves on precipitation, such as the radar reflectivity factor Z, rain rate R, and raindrop size distribution (DSD). A monitoring system that consisted of rain gauges and raindrop spectrometers was employed to monitor near-ground rainfall within a 5-km radius of the field site. The ground-based observations showed that acoustic waves could significantly affect the rainfall distribution and microstructure of precipitation particles. The average values of rainfall increased by 18.98%, 10.61%, and 8.74% within 2, 3, and 5 km, respectively, of the operation center with acoustic application. The changing trend of microphysical parameters of precipitation was roughly in line with variation of acoustic waves for stratiform cloud. Moreover, there was a good quadratic relationship between the spectral parameters λ and μ. Raindrop kinetic energy e K and the radar reflectivity factor Z both exhibited a power function relationship with R.
Abstract
Acoustic agglomerations have increasingly attracted widespread attention as a cost-effective and environmentally friendly approach for fog removal and weather modification. In this study, research on precipitation interference and the agglomeration performance of droplet aerosols under large-scale acoustic waves was presented. In total, 49 field experiments in the source region of the Yellow River in the summer of 2019 were performed to reveal the influences of acoustic waves on precipitation, such as the radar reflectivity factor Z, rain rate R, and raindrop size distribution (DSD). A monitoring system that consisted of rain gauges and raindrop spectrometers was employed to monitor near-ground rainfall within a 5-km radius of the field site. The ground-based observations showed that acoustic waves could significantly affect the rainfall distribution and microstructure of precipitation particles. The average values of rainfall increased by 18.98%, 10.61%, and 8.74% within 2, 3, and 5 km, respectively, of the operation center with acoustic application. The changing trend of microphysical parameters of precipitation was roughly in line with variation of acoustic waves for stratiform cloud. Moreover, there was a good quadratic relationship between the spectral parameters λ and μ. Raindrop kinetic energy e K and the radar reflectivity factor Z both exhibited a power function relationship with R.
