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- Author or Editor: Anthony Del Genio x
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Abstract
The diagnostic analysis of numerical simulations of the Venus/Titan wind regime reveals an overlooked constraint upon the latitudinal structure of their zonal-mean angular momentum. The numerical experiments, as well as the limited planetary observations, are approximately consistent with the hypothesis that within the latitudes bounded by the wind maxima the total Ertel potential vorticity associated with the zonal-mean motion is approximately well mixed with respect to the neutral equatorial value for a stable circulation. The implied latitudinal profile of angular momentum is of the form M ≤ Me (cosλ)2/Ri, where λ is the latitude and Ri the local Richardson number, generally intermediate between the two extremes of uniform angular momentum (Ri → ∞) and uniform angular velocity (Ri = 1). The full range of angular momentum profile variation appears to be realized within the observed meridional–vertical structure of the Venus atmosphere, at least crudely approaching the implied relationship between stratification and zonal velocity there. While not itself indicative of a particular eddy mechanism or specific to atmospheric superrotation, the zero potential vorticity (ZPV) constraint represents a limiting bound for the eddy–mean flow adjustment of a neutrally stable baroclinic circulation and may be usefully applied to the diagnostic analysis of future remote sounding and in situ measurements from planetary spacecraft.
Abstract
The diagnostic analysis of numerical simulations of the Venus/Titan wind regime reveals an overlooked constraint upon the latitudinal structure of their zonal-mean angular momentum. The numerical experiments, as well as the limited planetary observations, are approximately consistent with the hypothesis that within the latitudes bounded by the wind maxima the total Ertel potential vorticity associated with the zonal-mean motion is approximately well mixed with respect to the neutral equatorial value for a stable circulation. The implied latitudinal profile of angular momentum is of the form M ≤ Me (cosλ)2/Ri, where λ is the latitude and Ri the local Richardson number, generally intermediate between the two extremes of uniform angular momentum (Ri → ∞) and uniform angular velocity (Ri = 1). The full range of angular momentum profile variation appears to be realized within the observed meridional–vertical structure of the Venus atmosphere, at least crudely approaching the implied relationship between stratification and zonal velocity there. While not itself indicative of a particular eddy mechanism or specific to atmospheric superrotation, the zero potential vorticity (ZPV) constraint represents a limiting bound for the eddy–mean flow adjustment of a neutrally stable baroclinic circulation and may be usefully applied to the diagnostic analysis of future remote sounding and in situ measurements from planetary spacecraft.
Abstract
Pioneer Venus OCPP ultraviolet images spanning eight years have been analyzed objectively to derive quantitative information on the properties of planetary-scale wave modes at the Venus cloud tops. We infer propagation characteristics for longitudinal wavenumber 1 by Fourier analyzing time series of longitudinal mean normalized image brightness. The dominant equatorial mode during 1979–80 was the 4-day periodicity associated with zonal motion of the Y-feature. The difference between this and the 4.7-day equatorial rotation period derived from the tracking of small cloud features implies that the Y is a propagating wave with a prograde phase speed of about 15 ms−1 relative to the wind. Simultaneous time series of cloud-tracked wind fluctuations also exhibit a 4-day periodicity, lending support to the wave interpretation. The prograde propagation and equatorial confinement of the wave, and the absence of analogous meridional wind fluctuations, identify it as a Kelvin wave. Zonal winds peak near the leading edge of the Y; gravity wave theory then implies that dark UV features at low latitudes are cold and produced by upwelling or convection associated with the wave. In 1982–83 the Kelvin mode was very weak or absent, replaced by a 5-day equatorial periodicity in brightness that is not significantly different from the 5.0-day cloud-tracked wind rotation period recorded during those years. Zonal wind fluctuations for 1982 show no obvious spectral peak, suggesting that brightness variations at this time are due to advection of a remnant albedo pattern rather than active wave propagation. The Kelvin wave amplitude and implied propagation characteristics suggest that it dissipates at the cloud tops and contributes significantly to the maintenance of the cloud top equatorial superrotation. The disappearance of the Kelvin wave between 1980 and 1982 may therefore explain the coincident 5–10 ms−1 decline in the equatorial zonal wind. The 1985–86 images indicate a return of the 4-day brightness periodicity and a restoration of equatorial wind speeds similar to those in 1979–80. Thus, the cloud level dynamics may be cyclic, with an apparent time scale of 5–10 years. A separate midlatitude planetary-scale transient mode with a period near 5 days also occurs when the 4-day equatorial wave is present. The midlatitude mode retrogrades with respect to the zonal wind and may be a slowly rotating analog to an internal Rossby-Haurwitz wave generated by shear instability of the midlatitude jet. If so, it too may accelerate the equatorial wind. Solar-locked diurnal and semidiurnal tidal modes are also present in both the brightness and cloud-tracked wind data during all imaging periods; their amplitudes appear to be similar to that of the equatorial Kelvin wave. The long-term evolution and maintenance of the Venus cloud top superrotation may therefore reflect a complex balance among at least four eddy momentum transport mechanisms.
Abstract
Pioneer Venus OCPP ultraviolet images spanning eight years have been analyzed objectively to derive quantitative information on the properties of planetary-scale wave modes at the Venus cloud tops. We infer propagation characteristics for longitudinal wavenumber 1 by Fourier analyzing time series of longitudinal mean normalized image brightness. The dominant equatorial mode during 1979–80 was the 4-day periodicity associated with zonal motion of the Y-feature. The difference between this and the 4.7-day equatorial rotation period derived from the tracking of small cloud features implies that the Y is a propagating wave with a prograde phase speed of about 15 ms−1 relative to the wind. Simultaneous time series of cloud-tracked wind fluctuations also exhibit a 4-day periodicity, lending support to the wave interpretation. The prograde propagation and equatorial confinement of the wave, and the absence of analogous meridional wind fluctuations, identify it as a Kelvin wave. Zonal winds peak near the leading edge of the Y; gravity wave theory then implies that dark UV features at low latitudes are cold and produced by upwelling or convection associated with the wave. In 1982–83 the Kelvin mode was very weak or absent, replaced by a 5-day equatorial periodicity in brightness that is not significantly different from the 5.0-day cloud-tracked wind rotation period recorded during those years. Zonal wind fluctuations for 1982 show no obvious spectral peak, suggesting that brightness variations at this time are due to advection of a remnant albedo pattern rather than active wave propagation. The Kelvin wave amplitude and implied propagation characteristics suggest that it dissipates at the cloud tops and contributes significantly to the maintenance of the cloud top equatorial superrotation. The disappearance of the Kelvin wave between 1980 and 1982 may therefore explain the coincident 5–10 ms−1 decline in the equatorial zonal wind. The 1985–86 images indicate a return of the 4-day brightness periodicity and a restoration of equatorial wind speeds similar to those in 1979–80. Thus, the cloud level dynamics may be cyclic, with an apparent time scale of 5–10 years. A separate midlatitude planetary-scale transient mode with a period near 5 days also occurs when the 4-day equatorial wave is present. The midlatitude mode retrogrades with respect to the zonal wind and may be a slowly rotating analog to an internal Rossby-Haurwitz wave generated by shear instability of the midlatitude jet. If so, it too may accelerate the equatorial wind. Solar-locked diurnal and semidiurnal tidal modes are also present in both the brightness and cloud-tracked wind data during all imaging periods; their amplitudes appear to be similar to that of the equatorial Kelvin wave. The long-term evolution and maintenance of the Venus cloud top superrotation may therefore reflect a complex balance among at least four eddy momentum transport mechanisms.
Abstract
We examine the response of the GISS global climate model to different parameterizations of moist convective man flux. A control run with arbitrarily specified updraft mass flux is compared to experiments that predict cumulus mass flux on the basis of low-level convergence, convergence plus surface evaporation, or convergence and evaporation modified by varying boundary layer height. An experiment that includes a simple parameterization of saturated convective-scale downdrafts is also described. Convergence effects on cumulus mass flux significantly improve the model's January climatology by increasing the frequency of occurrence of deep convection in the tropics and decreasing it at high latitudes, shifting the ITCZ from 12°N to 4°5, strengthening convective heating in the western Pacific, and increasing tropical long-wave eddy kinetic energy. Surface evaporation effects generally oppose the effects of convergence but are necessary to produce realistic continental convective heating and well-defined marine shallow cumulus regions. Varying boundary layer height (as prescribed by variations in lifting condensation level) has little effect on the model climatology. Downdrafts, however, reinforce many of the positive effects of convergence while also improving the model's vertical humidity profile and radiation balance. The diurnal cycle of precipitation over the West Pacific is best simulated when convergence determines cumulus mass flux, while surface flux effects are needed to reproduce diurnal variations in the continental ITCZ. In each experiment the model correctly simulates the observed correlation between deep convection strength and tropical sea surface temperature; the parameterization of cumulus mass flux has little effect on this relationship. The experiments have several implications for cloud effects on climate sensitivity. The dependence of cumulus mass flux on vertical motions, and the insensitivity of mean vertical motions to changes in forcing, suggests that the convective response to climate forcing may be weaker than that estimated in previous global climate model simulations that link convection only to moist static instability. This implies that changes in cloud cover and hence positive cloud feedback have been overestimated in these climate change experiments. Downdrafts may affect the feedback in the same sense by replenishing boundary layer moisture relative to cumulus parameterization schemes with only dry compensating subsidence.
Abstract
We examine the response of the GISS global climate model to different parameterizations of moist convective man flux. A control run with arbitrarily specified updraft mass flux is compared to experiments that predict cumulus mass flux on the basis of low-level convergence, convergence plus surface evaporation, or convergence and evaporation modified by varying boundary layer height. An experiment that includes a simple parameterization of saturated convective-scale downdrafts is also described. Convergence effects on cumulus mass flux significantly improve the model's January climatology by increasing the frequency of occurrence of deep convection in the tropics and decreasing it at high latitudes, shifting the ITCZ from 12°N to 4°5, strengthening convective heating in the western Pacific, and increasing tropical long-wave eddy kinetic energy. Surface evaporation effects generally oppose the effects of convergence but are necessary to produce realistic continental convective heating and well-defined marine shallow cumulus regions. Varying boundary layer height (as prescribed by variations in lifting condensation level) has little effect on the model climatology. Downdrafts, however, reinforce many of the positive effects of convergence while also improving the model's vertical humidity profile and radiation balance. The diurnal cycle of precipitation over the West Pacific is best simulated when convergence determines cumulus mass flux, while surface flux effects are needed to reproduce diurnal variations in the continental ITCZ. In each experiment the model correctly simulates the observed correlation between deep convection strength and tropical sea surface temperature; the parameterization of cumulus mass flux has little effect on this relationship. The experiments have several implications for cloud effects on climate sensitivity. The dependence of cumulus mass flux on vertical motions, and the insensitivity of mean vertical motions to changes in forcing, suggests that the convective response to climate forcing may be weaker than that estimated in previous global climate model simulations that link convection only to moist static instability. This implies that changes in cloud cover and hence positive cloud feedback have been overestimated in these climate change experiments. Downdrafts may affect the feedback in the same sense by replenishing boundary layer moisture relative to cumulus parameterization schemes with only dry compensating subsidence.
Abstract
As a preliminary step in the development of a general circulation model for general planetary use, a simplified version of the GISS Model 1 GCM has been run at various rotation periods to investigate differences between the dynamical regimes of rapidly and slowly rotating planets. To isolate the dynamical processes, the hydrologic cycle is suppressed and the atmosphere is forced with perpetual annual mean solar heating. All other parameters except the rotation period remain fixed at their terrestrial values. Experiments were conducted for rotation periods of ⅔, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 64 and 256 days. The results are in qualitative agreement with similar experiments carded out previously with other GCMs and with certain aspects of one Venus GCM simulation. As rotation rate decreases, the energetics shifts from baroclinic to quasi-barotropic when the Rossby radius of deformation reaches planetary scale. The Hadley cell expands poleward and replaces eddies as the primary mode of large-scale heat transport. Associated with this is a poleward shift of the baroclinic zone and jet stream and a reduction of the equator-pole temperature contrast. Midlatitude jet strength peaks at 8 days period, as does the weak positive equatorial zonal wind which occurs at upper levels at all rotation periods. Eddy momentum transport switches from poleward to equatorward at the same period. Tropospheric mean static stability generally increases in the tropics and decreases in midlatitudes as rotation rate decreases, but the global mean static stability is independent of rotation rate. The peak in the eddy kinetic energy spectrum shifts toward lower wavenumbers, reaching wavenumber 1 at a period of 8 days. Implications of these results for the dynamics of Venus and Titan are discussed. Specifically, it is suggested that the extent of low-level convection determines whether the Gierasch mechanism contributes significantly to equatorial superrotation on these planets.
Abstract
As a preliminary step in the development of a general circulation model for general planetary use, a simplified version of the GISS Model 1 GCM has been run at various rotation periods to investigate differences between the dynamical regimes of rapidly and slowly rotating planets. To isolate the dynamical processes, the hydrologic cycle is suppressed and the atmosphere is forced with perpetual annual mean solar heating. All other parameters except the rotation period remain fixed at their terrestrial values. Experiments were conducted for rotation periods of ⅔, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 64 and 256 days. The results are in qualitative agreement with similar experiments carded out previously with other GCMs and with certain aspects of one Venus GCM simulation. As rotation rate decreases, the energetics shifts from baroclinic to quasi-barotropic when the Rossby radius of deformation reaches planetary scale. The Hadley cell expands poleward and replaces eddies as the primary mode of large-scale heat transport. Associated with this is a poleward shift of the baroclinic zone and jet stream and a reduction of the equator-pole temperature contrast. Midlatitude jet strength peaks at 8 days period, as does the weak positive equatorial zonal wind which occurs at upper levels at all rotation periods. Eddy momentum transport switches from poleward to equatorward at the same period. Tropospheric mean static stability generally increases in the tropics and decreases in midlatitudes as rotation rate decreases, but the global mean static stability is independent of rotation rate. The peak in the eddy kinetic energy spectrum shifts toward lower wavenumbers, reaching wavenumber 1 at a period of 8 days. Implications of these results for the dynamics of Venus and Titan are discussed. Specifically, it is suggested that the extent of low-level convection determines whether the Gierasch mechanism contributes significantly to equatorial superrotation on these planets.
Abstract
In this paper the coupling of the Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) general circulation model (GCM) to an online sulfur chemistry model and source models for organic matter and sea salt that is used to estimate the aerosol indirect effect is described. The cloud droplet number concentration is diagnosed empirically from field experiment datasets over land and ocean that observe droplet number and all three aerosol types simultaneously; corrections are made for implied variations in cloud turbulence levels. The resulting cloud droplet number is used to calculate variations in droplet effective radius, which in turn allows one to predict aerosol effects on cloud optical thickness and microphysical process rates. The aerosol indirect effect is calculated by differencing the top-of-the-atmosphere net cloud radiative forcing for simulations with present-day versus preindustrial emissions. Both the first and second indirect effects are explored. The sensitivity of the results presented here to cloud parameterization assumptions that control the vertical distribution of cloud occurrence, the autoconversion rate, and the aerosol scavenging rate, each of which feeds back significantly on the model aerosol burden, are tested. The global mean aerosol indirect effect for all three aerosol types ranges from −1.55 to −4.36 W m−2 in the simulations. The results are quite sensitive to the preindustrial background aerosol burden, with low preindustrial burdens giving strong indirect effects, and to a lesser extent to the anthropogenic aerosol burden, with large burdens giving somewhat larger indirect effects. Because of this dependence on the background aerosol, model diagnostics such as albedo-particle size correlations and column cloud susceptibility, for which satellite validation products are available, are not good predictors of the resulting indirect effect.
Abstract
In this paper the coupling of the Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) general circulation model (GCM) to an online sulfur chemistry model and source models for organic matter and sea salt that is used to estimate the aerosol indirect effect is described. The cloud droplet number concentration is diagnosed empirically from field experiment datasets over land and ocean that observe droplet number and all three aerosol types simultaneously; corrections are made for implied variations in cloud turbulence levels. The resulting cloud droplet number is used to calculate variations in droplet effective radius, which in turn allows one to predict aerosol effects on cloud optical thickness and microphysical process rates. The aerosol indirect effect is calculated by differencing the top-of-the-atmosphere net cloud radiative forcing for simulations with present-day versus preindustrial emissions. Both the first and second indirect effects are explored. The sensitivity of the results presented here to cloud parameterization assumptions that control the vertical distribution of cloud occurrence, the autoconversion rate, and the aerosol scavenging rate, each of which feeds back significantly on the model aerosol burden, are tested. The global mean aerosol indirect effect for all three aerosol types ranges from −1.55 to −4.36 W m−2 in the simulations. The results are quite sensitive to the preindustrial background aerosol burden, with low preindustrial burdens giving strong indirect effects, and to a lesser extent to the anthropogenic aerosol burden, with large burdens giving somewhat larger indirect effects. Because of this dependence on the background aerosol, model diagnostics such as albedo-particle size correlations and column cloud susceptibility, for which satellite validation products are available, are not good predictors of the resulting indirect effect.
Abstract
Analysis of ultraviolet image sequences, obtained from the Pioneer Venus Orbiter Cloud Photopolarimeter and covering five 80-day periods from 1979–1985, provides the first climatological description of the cloud top circulation on Venus. The average zonal winds can be characterized as a 5-day retrograde rotation of the whole cloud-level atmosphere with weak “jets” at middle to high latitudes. Both the midlatitude and equatorial zonal winds vary by about 5–8 m s−1 over time spans of 1–6 years. The average meridional circulation is poleward in both hemispheres up to at least 60° latitude, consistent with the presence of a thermally direct Hadley circulation associated with the clouds. The strength of the Hadley circulation also varies with time. Four wave modes are clearly identified: a diurnal solar tide, a semi-diurnal solar tide, a “4-day equatorial” wave, and a “5-day midlatitude” wave. The semidiurnal tide appears to have an amplitude of about 5 m s−1 and to be approximately constant with time; the diurnal tide varies in amplitude from about 10 m s−1 to less than 5 m s−1. Both tides have phases such that maximum zonal windspeeds occur near the evening terminator. The “4-day” wave is wavenumber 1 and has an amplitude of about 5 m s−1 that peaks at the equator and varies with time; in 1982 no wave with this period was apparent in the data. This wave mode is identified as a Kelvin mode by Del Genio and Rossow. The “5-day” wave is wavenumber 1 and has an amplitude of about 5 m s−1 that peaks at midlatitudes and varies in time: in 1982 no wave with this period was apparent. This wave mode is identified as an internal Rossby-Haurwitz mode.
Abstract
Analysis of ultraviolet image sequences, obtained from the Pioneer Venus Orbiter Cloud Photopolarimeter and covering five 80-day periods from 1979–1985, provides the first climatological description of the cloud top circulation on Venus. The average zonal winds can be characterized as a 5-day retrograde rotation of the whole cloud-level atmosphere with weak “jets” at middle to high latitudes. Both the midlatitude and equatorial zonal winds vary by about 5–8 m s−1 over time spans of 1–6 years. The average meridional circulation is poleward in both hemispheres up to at least 60° latitude, consistent with the presence of a thermally direct Hadley circulation associated with the clouds. The strength of the Hadley circulation also varies with time. Four wave modes are clearly identified: a diurnal solar tide, a semi-diurnal solar tide, a “4-day equatorial” wave, and a “5-day midlatitude” wave. The semidiurnal tide appears to have an amplitude of about 5 m s−1 and to be approximately constant with time; the diurnal tide varies in amplitude from about 10 m s−1 to less than 5 m s−1. Both tides have phases such that maximum zonal windspeeds occur near the evening terminator. The “4-day” wave is wavenumber 1 and has an amplitude of about 5 m s−1 that peaks at the equator and varies with time; in 1982 no wave with this period was apparent in the data. This wave mode is identified as a Kelvin mode by Del Genio and Rossow. The “5-day” wave is wavenumber 1 and has an amplitude of about 5 m s−1 that peaks at midlatitudes and varies in time: in 1982 no wave with this period was apparent. This wave mode is identified as an internal Rossby-Haurwitz mode.
Abstract
We provide morphological and kinematic desc6ptions of the UV markings seen in the Mariner 10 imagery of Venus: the dark horizontal Y, bow-like waves, circumequatorial belts, subsolar disturbance, spiral streaks and bands, polar ring and polar region. The dark horizontal Y is interpreted as a westward-propagating planetary wave with zonal wavenumber 1 and period ∼4.2 days; it may he the superposition of a Rossby-Haurwitz wave dominant at mid-latitudes and a Kelvin wave dominant in equatorial regions. Bow-like waves may be true bow waves formed by the interaction of the rapid zonal flow with internal gravity waves of lower horizontal phase speeds generated by the subsolar disturbance. Circumequatorial belts are interpreted as internal gravity waves with horizontal wavelength ∼500 km and zonal extent ∼5000 km. They are essentially parallel to latitude circles and propagate southward at about 20 m s−1. Cellular features in the subsolar region undoubtedly imply convection there. The identificatiod of both bright- and dark-rimmed cells, with horizontal scales of about 200 and 500 km, respectively, implies a 15 km deep convective layer, based on an analogy with mesoscale convection in the terrestrial maritime atmosphere. The dark areas of the cells may be regions of downwelling. Variability in the location and intensity of the polar ring may be caused by a zonally propagating disturbance, perhaps related to the planetary wave producing the Y in lower latitudes. Circulation patterns and other atmospheric processes in the polar region may be rather different from elsewhere on the planet; only in the polar region are UV markings also visible in the orange.
Abstract
We provide morphological and kinematic desc6ptions of the UV markings seen in the Mariner 10 imagery of Venus: the dark horizontal Y, bow-like waves, circumequatorial belts, subsolar disturbance, spiral streaks and bands, polar ring and polar region. The dark horizontal Y is interpreted as a westward-propagating planetary wave with zonal wavenumber 1 and period ∼4.2 days; it may he the superposition of a Rossby-Haurwitz wave dominant at mid-latitudes and a Kelvin wave dominant in equatorial regions. Bow-like waves may be true bow waves formed by the interaction of the rapid zonal flow with internal gravity waves of lower horizontal phase speeds generated by the subsolar disturbance. Circumequatorial belts are interpreted as internal gravity waves with horizontal wavelength ∼500 km and zonal extent ∼5000 km. They are essentially parallel to latitude circles and propagate southward at about 20 m s−1. Cellular features in the subsolar region undoubtedly imply convection there. The identificatiod of both bright- and dark-rimmed cells, with horizontal scales of about 200 and 500 km, respectively, implies a 15 km deep convective layer, based on an analogy with mesoscale convection in the terrestrial maritime atmosphere. The dark areas of the cells may be regions of downwelling. Variability in the location and intensity of the polar ring may be caused by a zonally propagating disturbance, perhaps related to the planetary wave producing the Y in lower latitudes. Circulation patterns and other atmospheric processes in the polar region may be rather different from elsewhere on the planet; only in the polar region are UV markings also visible in the orange.
Abstract
Upper-tropospheric ice cloud measurements from the Superconducting Submillimeter Limb Emission Sounder (SMILES) on the International Space Station (ISS) are used to study the diurnal cycle of upper-tropospheric ice cloud in the tropics and midlatitudes (40°S–40°N) and to quantitatively evaluate ice cloud diurnal variability simulated by 10 climate models. Over land, the SMILES-observed diurnal cycle has a maximum around 1800 local solar time (LST), while the model-simulated diurnal cycles have phases differing from the observed cycle by −4 to 12 h. Over ocean, the observations show much smaller diurnal cycle amplitudes than over land with a peak at 1200 LST, while the modeled diurnal cycle phases are widely distributed throughout the 24-h period. Most models show smaller diurnal cycle amplitudes over ocean than over land, which is in agreement with the observations. However, there is a large spread of modeled diurnal cycle amplitudes ranging from 20% to more than 300% of the observed over both land and ocean. Empirical orthogonal function (EOF) analysis on the observed and model-simulated variations of ice clouds finds that the first EOF modes over land from both observation and model simulations explain more than 70% of the ice cloud diurnal variations and they have similar spatial and temporal patterns. Over ocean, the first EOF from observation explains 26.4% of the variance, while the first EOF from most models explains more than 70%. The modeled spatial and temporal patterns of the leading EOFs over ocean show large differences from observations, indicating that the physical mechanisms governing the diurnal cycle of oceanic ice clouds are more complicated and not well simulated by the current climate models.
Abstract
Upper-tropospheric ice cloud measurements from the Superconducting Submillimeter Limb Emission Sounder (SMILES) on the International Space Station (ISS) are used to study the diurnal cycle of upper-tropospheric ice cloud in the tropics and midlatitudes (40°S–40°N) and to quantitatively evaluate ice cloud diurnal variability simulated by 10 climate models. Over land, the SMILES-observed diurnal cycle has a maximum around 1800 local solar time (LST), while the model-simulated diurnal cycles have phases differing from the observed cycle by −4 to 12 h. Over ocean, the observations show much smaller diurnal cycle amplitudes than over land with a peak at 1200 LST, while the modeled diurnal cycle phases are widely distributed throughout the 24-h period. Most models show smaller diurnal cycle amplitudes over ocean than over land, which is in agreement with the observations. However, there is a large spread of modeled diurnal cycle amplitudes ranging from 20% to more than 300% of the observed over both land and ocean. Empirical orthogonal function (EOF) analysis on the observed and model-simulated variations of ice clouds finds that the first EOF modes over land from both observation and model simulations explain more than 70% of the ice cloud diurnal variations and they have similar spatial and temporal patterns. Over ocean, the first EOF from observation explains 26.4% of the variance, while the first EOF from most models explains more than 70%. The modeled spatial and temporal patterns of the leading EOFs over ocean show large differences from observations, indicating that the physical mechanisms governing the diurnal cycle of oceanic ice clouds are more complicated and not well simulated by the current climate models.
