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flood discharge estimates. Can. J. Civil Eng. , 18 , 624 – 630 . 10.1139/l91-076 Rovansek, R. J. , Hinzman L. D. , and Kane D. L. , 1996 : Hydrology of a tundra wetland complex on the Alaskan Arctic coastal plain. Arct. Alp. Res. , 28 , 311 – 317 . 10.2307/1552110 Schaefer, J. T. , Hoxit L. R. , and Chappell C. F. , 1985 : Thunderstorms and their mesoscale environment. Thunderstorm Morphology and Dynamics, 2d ed., Edwin Kessler, Ed., University of Oklahoma Press, 113
flood discharge estimates. Can. J. Civil Eng. , 18 , 624 – 630 . 10.1139/l91-076 Rovansek, R. J. , Hinzman L. D. , and Kane D. L. , 1996 : Hydrology of a tundra wetland complex on the Alaskan Arctic coastal plain. Arct. Alp. Res. , 28 , 311 – 317 . 10.2307/1552110 Schaefer, J. T. , Hoxit L. R. , and Chappell C. F. , 1985 : Thunderstorms and their mesoscale environment. Thunderstorm Morphology and Dynamics, 2d ed., Edwin Kessler, Ed., University of Oklahoma Press, 113
increasing early winter respiration from Arctic tundra . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA , 114 , 5361 – 5366 , https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1618567114 . 10.1073/pnas.1618567114 D’Arrigo , R. , R. Wilson , B. Liepert , and P. Cherubini , 2008 : On the “divergence problem” in northern forests: A review of the tree-ring evidence and possible causes . Global Planet. Change , 60 , 289 – 305 , https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2007.03.004 . 10.1016/j.gloplacha.2007.03.004 Dieleman , W. I. J
increasing early winter respiration from Arctic tundra . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA , 114 , 5361 – 5366 , https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1618567114 . 10.1073/pnas.1618567114 D’Arrigo , R. , R. Wilson , B. Liepert , and P. Cherubini , 2008 : On the “divergence problem” in northern forests: A review of the tree-ring evidence and possible causes . Global Planet. Change , 60 , 289 – 305 , https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2007.03.004 . 10.1016/j.gloplacha.2007.03.004 Dieleman , W. I. J
/Goddard Institute For Space Studies, New York, 53 pp. [Available from Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771.] . Ohmura, A., 1982: Evaporation from the surface of the Arctic Tundra on Axel Heiburg Island. Water Resour. Res., 18, 291–300. ——, 1984: Comparative energy balance study for arctic tundra, sea surface, glaciers and boreal forests. Geo-Journal, 8, 221–228. Pan, H.-L., and L. Mahrt, 1987: Interaction between soil hydrology and boundary layer developments. Bound.-Layer Meteor., 38
/Goddard Institute For Space Studies, New York, 53 pp. [Available from Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771.] . Ohmura, A., 1982: Evaporation from the surface of the Arctic Tundra on Axel Heiburg Island. Water Resour. Res., 18, 291–300. ——, 1984: Comparative energy balance study for arctic tundra, sea surface, glaciers and boreal forests. Geo-Journal, 8, 221–228. Pan, H.-L., and L. Mahrt, 1987: Interaction between soil hydrology and boundary layer developments. Bound.-Layer Meteor., 38
regions . J. Geophys. Res. , 93 ( D8 ), 9510 – 9524 . Oechel , W. , S. Hastings , G. Courlitis , M. Jenkins , G. Riechers , and N. Grulke , 1993 : Recent changes in Arctic tundra ecosystems from a new carbon sink to a source . Nature , 361 , 520 – 523 . Onogi , K. , and Coauthors , 2007 : The JRA-25 Reanalysis . J. Meteor. Soc. Japan , 85 , 369 – 432 . Porter , D. , J. Cassano , M. Serreze , and D. Kindig , 2010 : New estimates of the large-scale Arctic
regions . J. Geophys. Res. , 93 ( D8 ), 9510 – 9524 . Oechel , W. , S. Hastings , G. Courlitis , M. Jenkins , G. Riechers , and N. Grulke , 1993 : Recent changes in Arctic tundra ecosystems from a new carbon sink to a source . Nature , 361 , 520 – 523 . Onogi , K. , and Coauthors , 2007 : The JRA-25 Reanalysis . J. Meteor. Soc. Japan , 85 , 369 – 432 . Porter , D. , J. Cassano , M. Serreze , and D. Kindig , 2010 : New estimates of the large-scale Arctic
"in Fig. 11. There is one new "other desert" grid elementin the northern USSR, three "cool woods" elementsin China, and there are nine fewer elements classifiedas "tundra" in the Arctic and six fewer classified as"tundra" in the Antarctic. Note also in Table 3 thatthe percentage areas covered by each of the groups differs very little between this and the earlier (Table 2)classifications. Overall, temperature increments aloneTABLE 3. Percentage coverage of land surface by the nine generalized life
"in Fig. 11. There is one new "other desert" grid elementin the northern USSR, three "cool woods" elementsin China, and there are nine fewer elements classifiedas "tundra" in the Arctic and six fewer classified as"tundra" in the Antarctic. Note also in Table 3 thatthe percentage areas covered by each of the groups differs very little between this and the earlier (Table 2)classifications. Overall, temperature increments aloneTABLE 3. Percentage coverage of land surface by the nine generalized life
1. Introduction The Köppen climate classification system (e.g., Rohli and Vega 2011 ) defines polar climates as those regions where the mean near-surface air temperature of the warmest month is below 10°C. Köppen further divided the polar climates into Polar Tundra (ET), where the warmest month was above 0°C, and Polar Ice Cap (EF), in which the warmest month was below 0°C. The upper limit of 10°C for the warmest month corresponds roughly with the poleward limit of tree growth. The warmest
1. Introduction The Köppen climate classification system (e.g., Rohli and Vega 2011 ) defines polar climates as those regions where the mean near-surface air temperature of the warmest month is below 10°C. Köppen further divided the polar climates into Polar Tundra (ET), where the warmest month was above 0°C, and Polar Ice Cap (EF), in which the warmest month was below 0°C. The upper limit of 10°C for the warmest month corresponds roughly with the poleward limit of tree growth. The warmest
during the study period occurs in Antarctica, the Arctic and tundra regions ( Fig. 2b ) and the annual minimum LSTs only occur in Antarctica ( Figs. 2a and ES2b ) where the incoming solar radiation is weak and a large portion of it is reflected back from the surface snow cover and ice sheets. Further, Antarctica is surrounded by oceans, typically controlled by low-pressure systems. This leads to strong winds from the center of the continent to its margins, contributing to record cold extremes. With
during the study period occurs in Antarctica, the Arctic and tundra regions ( Fig. 2b ) and the annual minimum LSTs only occur in Antarctica ( Figs. 2a and ES2b ) where the incoming solar radiation is weak and a large portion of it is reflected back from the surface snow cover and ice sheets. Further, Antarctica is surrounded by oceans, typically controlled by low-pressure systems. This leads to strong winds from the center of the continent to its margins, contributing to record cold extremes. With
, the extinction coefficient is taken as 0.10 (i.e., clear water),40% of solar radiation is absorbed in the top 60 cm,and the total lake depth is 50 m. The lake model isimplemented numerically with six layers 1, 2, 4, 8, 15,and 20 m thick. For comparative purposes, simulations using prescribed atmospheric forcings typical of tropical forest,temperate grassland, and arctic tundra were comparedfor vegetated and lake surfaces (Fig. 2). For ice-freeperiods, the lake absorbed much more solar
, the extinction coefficient is taken as 0.10 (i.e., clear water),40% of solar radiation is absorbed in the top 60 cm,and the total lake depth is 50 m. The lake model isimplemented numerically with six layers 1, 2, 4, 8, 15,and 20 m thick. For comparative purposes, simulations using prescribed atmospheric forcings typical of tropical forest,temperate grassland, and arctic tundra were comparedfor vegetated and lake surfaces (Fig. 2). For ice-freeperiods, the lake absorbed much more solar
Unmanned aerial capabilities offer exciting new perspectives on the Arctic atmosphere. The Arctic climate system is evolving at a rapid pace. Surface- and satellite-based observations show increasing temperatures ( Simon et al. 2005 ; Rigor et al. 2000 ; Serreze and Francis 2006 ), decreasing sea ice ( Kwok and Untersteiner 2011 ; Maslanik et al. 2011 ; Lindsay and Schweiger 2015 ), thawing permafrost ( Romanovsky et al. 2002 ), and changing ecosystems ( Burek et al. 2008 ; Post et al
Unmanned aerial capabilities offer exciting new perspectives on the Arctic atmosphere. The Arctic climate system is evolving at a rapid pace. Surface- and satellite-based observations show increasing temperatures ( Simon et al. 2005 ; Rigor et al. 2000 ; Serreze and Francis 2006 ), decreasing sea ice ( Kwok and Untersteiner 2011 ; Maslanik et al. 2011 ; Lindsay and Schweiger 2015 ), thawing permafrost ( Romanovsky et al. 2002 ), and changing ecosystems ( Burek et al. 2008 ; Post et al
: Arctic sea ice variability on a timescale of weeks and its relation to atmospheric forcing . J. Climate , 7 , 1897 – 1914 , https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1994)007<1897:ASIVOA>2.0.CO;2 . 10.1175/1520-0442(1994)007<1897:ASIVOA>2.0.CO;2 Forbes , B. C. , and Coauthors , 2016 : Sea ice, rain-on-snow and tundra reindeer nomadism in Arctic Russia . Biol. Lett. , 12 , 20160466, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2016.0466 . 10.1098/rsbl.2016.0466 Francis , J. A. , and E. Hunter , 2007
: Arctic sea ice variability on a timescale of weeks and its relation to atmospheric forcing . J. Climate , 7 , 1897 – 1914 , https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1994)007<1897:ASIVOA>2.0.CO;2 . 10.1175/1520-0442(1994)007<1897:ASIVOA>2.0.CO;2 Forbes , B. C. , and Coauthors , 2016 : Sea ice, rain-on-snow and tundra reindeer nomadism in Arctic Russia . Biol. Lett. , 12 , 20160466, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2016.0466 . 10.1098/rsbl.2016.0466 Francis , J. A. , and E. Hunter , 2007
