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spacing of the model simulations in the present study (2 km) is about two orders of magnitude too coarse to simulate tornadogenesis, whether the modeled storms are capable of producing tornadoes is a topic that cannot be addressed here. Therefore, this study focuses on the synoptic, meso-, and storm-scale features of the 3 May outbreak. The initial time for the integration was 0000 UTC 3 May 1999 in D1–D3, whereas D4 was switched on at 1800 UTC 3 May 1999 (18 h into the simulation). This approach was
spacing of the model simulations in the present study (2 km) is about two orders of magnitude too coarse to simulate tornadogenesis, whether the modeled storms are capable of producing tornadoes is a topic that cannot be addressed here. Therefore, this study focuses on the synoptic, meso-, and storm-scale features of the 3 May outbreak. The initial time for the integration was 0000 UTC 3 May 1999 in D1–D3, whereas D4 was switched on at 1800 UTC 3 May 1999 (18 h into the simulation). This approach was
.1175/WAF-D-19-0258.1 Markowski , P. M. , and Y. P. Richardson , 2009 : Tornadogenesis: Our current understanding, forecasting considerations, and questions to guide future research . Atmos. Res. , 93 , 3 – 10 , https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.09.015 . 10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.09.015 McCaul , E. W. , Jr ., and M. L. Weisman , 2001 : The sensitivity of simulated supercell structure and intensity to variations in the shapes of environmental buoyancy and shear profiles . Mon
.1175/WAF-D-19-0258.1 Markowski , P. M. , and Y. P. Richardson , 2009 : Tornadogenesis: Our current understanding, forecasting considerations, and questions to guide future research . Atmos. Res. , 93 , 3 – 10 , https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.09.015 . 10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.09.015 McCaul , E. W. , Jr ., and M. L. Weisman , 2001 : The sensitivity of simulated supercell structure and intensity to variations in the shapes of environmental buoyancy and shear profiles . Mon
; Schenkel et al. 2020 ). Finally, landfalling TCs typically occur in moderate-to-strong westerly VWS, which enhances convective-scale lower-tropospheric vertical wind shear in TCs and, ultimately, the likelihood of tornadogenesis ( Molinari and Vollaro 2008 ; Schenkel et al. 2020 ). The strongest vertical shears in the ambient winds occur within the mid-to-upper troposphere in association with the subtropical or polar jet ( Verbout et al. 2007 ; Finocchio and Majumdar 2017 ), which can impact TC
; Schenkel et al. 2020 ). Finally, landfalling TCs typically occur in moderate-to-strong westerly VWS, which enhances convective-scale lower-tropospheric vertical wind shear in TCs and, ultimately, the likelihood of tornadogenesis ( Molinari and Vollaro 2008 ; Schenkel et al. 2020 ). The strongest vertical shears in the ambient winds occur within the mid-to-upper troposphere in association with the subtropical or polar jet ( Verbout et al. 2007 ; Finocchio and Majumdar 2017 ), which can impact TC
and hook echoes are not always apparent and often more subtle for TCTOR supercells ( Spratt et al. 1997 ), though hook echoes or appendages preceded tornadogenesis in 75% of TCTORs examined by Schneider and Sharp (2007) . Typical automated metrics of radial velocity such as the mesocyclone detection algorithm (MDA) are often ineffective in TCTOR supercells, owing to the shallow nature of the convection and beam overshooting at greater ranges ( Spratt et al. 1997 ), but enhanced midlevel radial
and hook echoes are not always apparent and often more subtle for TCTOR supercells ( Spratt et al. 1997 ), though hook echoes or appendages preceded tornadogenesis in 75% of TCTORs examined by Schneider and Sharp (2007) . Typical automated metrics of radial velocity such as the mesocyclone detection algorithm (MDA) are often ineffective in TCTOR supercells, owing to the shallow nature of the convection and beam overshooting at greater ranges ( Spratt et al. 1997 ), but enhanced midlevel radial
.1175/JAMC-D-21-0058.1 . Fischer , J. , and J. M. L. Dahl , 2022 : Transition of near-ground vorticity dynamics during tornadogenesis . J. Atmos. Sci. , 79 , 467 – 483 , https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-21-0181.1 . Flournoy , M. D. , and M. C. Coniglio , 2019 : Origins of vorticity in a simulated tornadic mesovortex observed during PECAN on 6 July 2015 . Mon. Wea. Rev. , 147 , 107 – 134 , https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-18-0221.1 . French , M. M. , and D. M. Kingfield , 2021
.1175/JAMC-D-21-0058.1 . Fischer , J. , and J. M. L. Dahl , 2022 : Transition of near-ground vorticity dynamics during tornadogenesis . J. Atmos. Sci. , 79 , 467 – 483 , https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-21-0181.1 . Flournoy , M. D. , and M. C. Coniglio , 2019 : Origins of vorticity in a simulated tornadic mesovortex observed during PECAN on 6 July 2015 . Mon. Wea. Rev. , 147 , 107 – 134 , https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-18-0221.1 . French , M. M. , and D. M. Kingfield , 2021
Symp. on Meteor. Observations and Instrumentation, New Or leans, Amer. Meteor. Society, 377-380.Weisman, M. L., and J. B. Klemp, 1984: The structure and classi fication of numerically simulated convective storms in direc tionally varying wind shears. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112, 2479-2498.Wilczak, J. M., T. W. Christian, D. E. Wolfe, R. J. Zamora, and B. Stankov, 1992: Observations of a Colorado tornado. Part I: Me soscale environment and tornadogenesis. Mon. Wea. Rev., 120, 497-519.Wilson, J
Symp. on Meteor. Observations and Instrumentation, New Or leans, Amer. Meteor. Society, 377-380.Weisman, M. L., and J. B. Klemp, 1984: The structure and classi fication of numerically simulated convective storms in direc tionally varying wind shears. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112, 2479-2498.Wilczak, J. M., T. W. Christian, D. E. Wolfe, R. J. Zamora, and B. Stankov, 1992: Observations of a Colorado tornado. Part I: Me soscale environment and tornadogenesis. Mon. Wea. Rev., 120, 497-519.Wilson, J
.2006.75 . 10.1109/MIS.2006.75 Lemon , L. R. , and C. A. Doswell III , 1979 : Severe thunderstorm evolution and mesocyclone structure as related to tornadogenesis . Mon. Wea. Rev. , 107 , 1184 – 1197 , https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1979)107<1184:STEAMS>2.0.CO;2 . 10.1175/1520-0493(1979)107<1184:STEAMS>2.0.CO;2 Nai , F. , J. Boettcher , C. Curtis , D. Schvartzman , and S. Torres , 2020a : The impact of elevation sidelobe contamination on radar data quality for
.2006.75 . 10.1109/MIS.2006.75 Lemon , L. R. , and C. A. Doswell III , 1979 : Severe thunderstorm evolution and mesocyclone structure as related to tornadogenesis . Mon. Wea. Rev. , 107 , 1184 – 1197 , https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1979)107<1184:STEAMS>2.0.CO;2 . 10.1175/1520-0493(1979)107<1184:STEAMS>2.0.CO;2 Nai , F. , J. Boettcher , C. Curtis , D. Schvartzman , and S. Torres , 2020a : The impact of elevation sidelobe contamination on radar data quality for
boundaries, are a triggering mechanism for tornadic thunderstorms in the wet season. Wakimoto andWilson (1989) have proposed a model to explain nonSupercell tornado development in which low-levelboundaries play a crucial role in tornadogenesis. Thistheory may have important applications in centralFlorida. The tracking of boundaries with Doppler radar, satellite, and mesonet data aids in the short-term prediction of potentially tornadic thunderstorms, but fewboundaries, or boundary intersections
boundaries, are a triggering mechanism for tornadic thunderstorms in the wet season. Wakimoto andWilson (1989) have proposed a model to explain nonSupercell tornado development in which low-levelboundaries play a crucial role in tornadogenesis. Thistheory may have important applications in centralFlorida. The tracking of boundaries with Doppler radar, satellite, and mesonet data aids in the short-term prediction of potentially tornadic thunderstorms, but fewboundaries, or boundary intersections
-body scatter spike” as a large hail signature. Postprints, The First WSR-88D Users Conf., Norman, OK, WSR-88D Operational Support Facility, 373–388. ——, and C. A. Doswell III, 1979: Severe thunderstorm evolution and mesocyclone structure as related to tornadogenesis. Mon. Wea. Rev., 107, 1184–1197. 10.1175/1520-0493(1979)107<1184:STEAMS>2.0.CO;2 ——, and D. W. Burgess, 1993: Supercell associated deep convergence zone revealed by a WSR-88D. Preprints, 26th Int. Conf. on Radar Meteorology, Norman
-body scatter spike” as a large hail signature. Postprints, The First WSR-88D Users Conf., Norman, OK, WSR-88D Operational Support Facility, 373–388. ——, and C. A. Doswell III, 1979: Severe thunderstorm evolution and mesocyclone structure as related to tornadogenesis. Mon. Wea. Rev., 107, 1184–1197. 10.1175/1520-0493(1979)107<1184:STEAMS>2.0.CO;2 ——, and D. W. Burgess, 1993: Supercell associated deep convergence zone revealed by a WSR-88D. Preprints, 26th Int. Conf. on Radar Meteorology, Norman
. J. Kocin, 1983: An interactive Barnes objective map analysis scheme for use with satellite and conventional data. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 22, 1487 1503.Lemon, L. R., and C. A. Doswell III, 1979: Severe thunderstorm evolution and mesocyclone structure as related to tornadogenesis. Mon. Wea. Rev., 107, 1184-1197.Mahoney, E. A., and R. Schaar, 1993: WSR-88D scan strategy impacts on the vertically integrated liquid product. Preprints, 26th Int. Conf on Radar Meteorology, Norman, OK
. J. Kocin, 1983: An interactive Barnes objective map analysis scheme for use with satellite and conventional data. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 22, 1487 1503.Lemon, L. R., and C. A. Doswell III, 1979: Severe thunderstorm evolution and mesocyclone structure as related to tornadogenesis. Mon. Wea. Rev., 107, 1184-1197.Mahoney, E. A., and R. Schaar, 1993: WSR-88D scan strategy impacts on the vertically integrated liquid product. Preprints, 26th Int. Conf on Radar Meteorology, Norman, OK
