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. NOAA Tech. Memo. NWS NSSFC-1, 60 pp. [NTIS PB273049.]--, and C. A. Doswell IIl, 1979: Severe thunderstorm evolution and mesocyclone structure as related to tornadogenesis. Mort. Wea. Rev., 107~ 1184-1197.Maddox, R. A., 1993: Diurnal low-level wind oscillation and storm relative helicity. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Predic tion, and Hazards, Geophys. Monogr., No. 79, Amer. Geophys. Union, 591-598.--, and C. A. Doswell III, 1982: An examination of jet stream configurations
. NOAA Tech. Memo. NWS NSSFC-1, 60 pp. [NTIS PB273049.]--, and C. A. Doswell IIl, 1979: Severe thunderstorm evolution and mesocyclone structure as related to tornadogenesis. Mort. Wea. Rev., 107~ 1184-1197.Maddox, R. A., 1993: Diurnal low-level wind oscillation and storm relative helicity. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Predic tion, and Hazards, Geophys. Monogr., No. 79, Amer. Geophys. Union, 591-598.--, and C. A. Doswell III, 1982: An examination of jet stream configurations
structure as related to tornadogenesis . Mon. Wea. Rev. , 107 , 1184 – 1197 , https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1979)107<1184:STEAMS>2.0.CO;2 . 10.1175/1520-0493(1979)107<1184:STEAMS>2.0.CO;2 Nai , F. , J. Boettcher , C. Curtis , D. Schvartzman , and S. Torres , 2020 : The impact of elevation sidelobe contamination on radar data quality for operational interpretation . J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol. , 59 , 707 – 724 , https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-19-0092.1 . 10.1175/JAMC-D-19
structure as related to tornadogenesis . Mon. Wea. Rev. , 107 , 1184 – 1197 , https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1979)107<1184:STEAMS>2.0.CO;2 . 10.1175/1520-0493(1979)107<1184:STEAMS>2.0.CO;2 Nai , F. , J. Boettcher , C. Curtis , D. Schvartzman , and S. Torres , 2020 : The impact of elevation sidelobe contamination on radar data quality for operational interpretation . J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol. , 59 , 707 – 724 , https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-19-0092.1 . 10.1175/JAMC-D-19
. Bruning , 2010 : Simulated electrification of a small thunderstorm with two-moment bulk microphysics . J. Atmos. Sci. , 67 , 171 – 194 , https://doi.org/10.1175/2009JAS2965.1 . 10.1175/2009JAS2965.1 McRae , R. H. , J. J. Sharples , S. R. Wilkes , and A. Walker , 2013 : An Australian pyro-tornadogenesis event . Nat. Hazards , 65 , 1801 – 1811 , https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-012-0443-7 . 10.1007/s11069-012-0443-7 Melnikov , V. , D. Zrnić , and R. Rabin , 2009
. Bruning , 2010 : Simulated electrification of a small thunderstorm with two-moment bulk microphysics . J. Atmos. Sci. , 67 , 171 – 194 , https://doi.org/10.1175/2009JAS2965.1 . 10.1175/2009JAS2965.1 McRae , R. H. , J. J. Sharples , S. R. Wilkes , and A. Walker , 2013 : An Australian pyro-tornadogenesis event . Nat. Hazards , 65 , 1801 – 1811 , https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-012-0443-7 . 10.1007/s11069-012-0443-7 Melnikov , V. , D. Zrnić , and R. Rabin , 2009
E. V. Johnson , 2008 : Spring and summer severe weather reports over the Midwest as a function of convective mode: A preliminary study . Wea. Forecasting , 23 , 101 – 113 , https://doi.org/10.1175/2007WAF2006120.1 . Goodnight , J. S. , D. A. Chehak , and R. J. Trapp , 2022 : Quantification of QLCS tornadogenesis, associated characteristics, and environments across a large sample . Wea. Forecasting , 37 , 2087 – 2105 , https://doi.org/10.1175/WAF-D-22-0016.1 . Grasmick
E. V. Johnson , 2008 : Spring and summer severe weather reports over the Midwest as a function of convective mode: A preliminary study . Wea. Forecasting , 23 , 101 – 113 , https://doi.org/10.1175/2007WAF2006120.1 . Goodnight , J. S. , D. A. Chehak , and R. J. Trapp , 2022 : Quantification of QLCS tornadogenesis, associated characteristics, and environments across a large sample . Wea. Forecasting , 37 , 2087 – 2105 , https://doi.org/10.1175/WAF-D-22-0016.1 . Grasmick
, and T. Kato , 2009 : Numerical simulation of tornadogenesis in an outer-rainband minisupercell of Typhoon Shanshan on 17 September 2006 . Mon. Wea. Rev. , 137 , 4238 – 4260 , https://doi.org/10.1175/2009MWR2959.1 . McCaul , E. W. , Jr. , 1991 : Buoyancy and shear characteristics of hurricane-tornado environments . Mon. Wea. Rev. , 119 , 1954 – 1978 , https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1991)119<1954:BASCOH>2.0.CO;2 . McCaul , E. W. , Jr. , and M. L. Weisman , 1996
, and T. Kato , 2009 : Numerical simulation of tornadogenesis in an outer-rainband minisupercell of Typhoon Shanshan on 17 September 2006 . Mon. Wea. Rev. , 137 , 4238 – 4260 , https://doi.org/10.1175/2009MWR2959.1 . McCaul , E. W. , Jr. , 1991 : Buoyancy and shear characteristics of hurricane-tornado environments . Mon. Wea. Rev. , 119 , 1954 – 1978 , https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1991)119<1954:BASCOH>2.0.CO;2 . McCaul , E. W. , Jr. , and M. L. Weisman , 1996
prior to tornadogenesis was the only instance where flash rates from GLM17 increased slightly in tandem with GLM16 and ENTLN. All three MRMS variables also remained elevated until the end of the third tornado at 2026 UTC. Through the 270-min study of the supercell, GLM16 recorded 168% more flashes than GLM17. When accumulating the optical energy from all of the flashes from each sensor, GLM16 recorded 27% more optical energy than GLM17, which means that GLM17 observed 112% more optical energy per
prior to tornadogenesis was the only instance where flash rates from GLM17 increased slightly in tandem with GLM16 and ENTLN. All three MRMS variables also remained elevated until the end of the third tornado at 2026 UTC. Through the 270-min study of the supercell, GLM16 recorded 168% more flashes than GLM17. When accumulating the optical energy from all of the flashes from each sensor, GLM16 recorded 27% more optical energy than GLM17, which means that GLM17 observed 112% more optical energy per
-convection . Int. J. Wildland Fire , 18 , 554 – 562 , https://doi.org/10.1071/WF07035 . 10.1071/WF07035 McRae , R. H. D. , J. J. Sharples , S. R. Wilkes , and A. Walker , 2012 : An Australian pyro-tornadogenesis event . Nat. Hazards , 65 , 1801 – 1811 , https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-012-0443-7 . 10.1007/s11069-012-0443-7 McRae , R. H. D. , J. J. Sharples , and M. Fromm , 2015 : Linking local wildfire dynamics to pyroCb development . Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. , 15 , 417 – 428
-convection . Int. J. Wildland Fire , 18 , 554 – 562 , https://doi.org/10.1071/WF07035 . 10.1071/WF07035 McRae , R. H. D. , J. J. Sharples , S. R. Wilkes , and A. Walker , 2012 : An Australian pyro-tornadogenesis event . Nat. Hazards , 65 , 1801 – 1811 , https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-012-0443-7 . 10.1007/s11069-012-0443-7 McRae , R. H. D. , J. J. Sharples , and M. Fromm , 2015 : Linking local wildfire dynamics to pyroCb development . Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. , 15 , 417 – 428
structure as related to tornadogenesis . Mon. Wea. Rev. , 107 , 1184 – 1197 , https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1979)107<1184:STEAMS>2.0.CO;2 . 10.1175/1520-0493(1979)107<1184:STEAMS>2.0.CO;2 Maddox , R. A. , 1976 : An evaluation of tornado proximity wind and stability data . Mon. Wea. Rev. , 104 , 133 – 142 , https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1976)104<0133:AEOTPW>2.0.CO;2 . 10.1175/1520-0493(1976)104<0133:AEOTPW>2.0.CO;2 Markowski , P. , C. Hannon , J. Frame , E. Lancaster
structure as related to tornadogenesis . Mon. Wea. Rev. , 107 , 1184 – 1197 , https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1979)107<1184:STEAMS>2.0.CO;2 . 10.1175/1520-0493(1979)107<1184:STEAMS>2.0.CO;2 Maddox , R. A. , 1976 : An evaluation of tornado proximity wind and stability data . Mon. Wea. Rev. , 104 , 133 – 142 , https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1976)104<0133:AEOTPW>2.0.CO;2 . 10.1175/1520-0493(1976)104<0133:AEOTPW>2.0.CO;2 Markowski , P. , C. Hannon , J. Frame , E. Lancaster
simulations of marginally unstable environments, steeper LLLRs corresponded to stronger convection when compared to modest LLLRs. Additionally, in the eastern United States, where elevated mixed layers are rare compared to the plains, steep LR75s have shown high correlation with significant severe weather outbreaks ( Banacos and Ekster 2010 ). Other studies have noted that steep lapse rates corresponded to a greater likelihood of tornadogenesis ( Godfrey et al. 2004 ; Parker 2012 ) and damaging winds
simulations of marginally unstable environments, steeper LLLRs corresponded to stronger convection when compared to modest LLLRs. Additionally, in the eastern United States, where elevated mixed layers are rare compared to the plains, steep LR75s have shown high correlation with significant severe weather outbreaks ( Banacos and Ekster 2010 ). Other studies have noted that steep lapse rates corresponded to a greater likelihood of tornadogenesis ( Godfrey et al. 2004 ; Parker 2012 ) and damaging winds
conceptual theory of tornadogenesis based on macro-, meso- and microscale processes. Preprints, Ninth Conf. on Severe Local Storms, Norman, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 376-383.Darkow, G. L., 1969: An analysis of over sixty tornado proximity soundings. Preprints, Sixth Conf. on Severe Local Storms, Chi cago, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 218-221.David, C. L., 1977: A study of synoptic conditions associated with New England tornadoes. Preprints, Tenth Conf. on Severe Local Storms, Omaha, Amer. Meteor. Soc
conceptual theory of tornadogenesis based on macro-, meso- and microscale processes. Preprints, Ninth Conf. on Severe Local Storms, Norman, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 376-383.Darkow, G. L., 1969: An analysis of over sixty tornado proximity soundings. Preprints, Sixth Conf. on Severe Local Storms, Chi cago, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 218-221.David, C. L., 1977: A study of synoptic conditions associated with New England tornadoes. Preprints, Tenth Conf. on Severe Local Storms, Omaha, Amer. Meteor. Soc
