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υE strongly differs for high and low vegetation. On average, the relative error is less for high than for low vegetation. It is the highest for wooded tundra (up to 25.27% on average; Table 5 ). This means that distinguishing more types of tundra may yield improvement of latent heat flux prediction in the Arctic. Generally, σ L υE increases nonlinearly with vegetation fraction. This increase is usually (slightly) greater under warmer than cooler conditions ( Fig. 4 ). Superimposed is a
υE strongly differs for high and low vegetation. On average, the relative error is less for high than for low vegetation. It is the highest for wooded tundra (up to 25.27% on average; Table 5 ). This means that distinguishing more types of tundra may yield improvement of latent heat flux prediction in the Arctic. Generally, σ L υE increases nonlinearly with vegetation fraction. This increase is usually (slightly) greater under warmer than cooler conditions ( Fig. 4 ). Superimposed is a
prognostic atmospheric model component and the RUC LSM option as its land surface component. With the RAP domain extending into the Arctic region ( Fig. 1 ), the RUC LSM needed further development to improve an interactive coupling of the atmosphere with the underlying surface where it is ice covered. Fig . 1. Topography image (elevation in meters) of the North America RAP domain with embedded RUC domain also shown [assumed to be equal to the conterminous United States (CONUS) in this paper]. As a first
prognostic atmospheric model component and the RUC LSM option as its land surface component. With the RAP domain extending into the Arctic region ( Fig. 1 ), the RUC LSM needed further development to improve an interactive coupling of the atmosphere with the underlying surface where it is ice covered. Fig . 1. Topography image (elevation in meters) of the North America RAP domain with embedded RUC domain also shown [assumed to be equal to the conterminous United States (CONUS) in this paper]. As a first
isotherm which coincides with the southern boundary of such a snow blanket in regions of sufficient humidity is that of - 2 O for the coldest month. The term sub-Arctic is permissible for this group, since in southern South America-the only southern hemi- sphere continent which lies near enough to the pole to reach such climates-the isotherm of 10' for the warmest month (the equatorial margin of the tundra) lies farther from the ole than the isotherm of -2' for the coldest month. !his is due to the
isotherm which coincides with the southern boundary of such a snow blanket in regions of sufficient humidity is that of - 2 O for the coldest month. The term sub-Arctic is permissible for this group, since in southern South America-the only southern hemi- sphere continent which lies near enough to the pole to reach such climates-the isotherm of 10' for the warmest month (the equatorial margin of the tundra) lies farther from the ole than the isotherm of -2' for the coldest month. !his is due to the
1. Introduction Sea ice, which provides a layer of thermal insulation between the ocean and atmosphere and reflects most of the incident solar insolation, is central to polar climate studies (e.g., Vihma 2014 ). During the twentieth century, Southern Hemisphere sea ice was characterized by large seasonal variations in areal coverage of relatively thin ice surrounding the Antarctic continent, while much of the Northern Hemisphere’s sea ice was thicker multiyear ice in the Arctic Ocean that was
1. Introduction Sea ice, which provides a layer of thermal insulation between the ocean and atmosphere and reflects most of the incident solar insolation, is central to polar climate studies (e.g., Vihma 2014 ). During the twentieth century, Southern Hemisphere sea ice was characterized by large seasonal variations in areal coverage of relatively thin ice surrounding the Antarctic continent, while much of the Northern Hemisphere’s sea ice was thicker multiyear ice in the Arctic Ocean that was
author at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory. REFERENCES Berner , L. T. , and Coauthors , 2020 : Summer warming explains widespread but not uniform greening in the Arctic tundra biome . Nat. Commun. , 11 , 4621 , https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18479-5 . Brubaker , K. L. , D. Entekhabi , and P. S. Eagleson , 1993 : Estimation of continental precipitation recycling . J. Climate , 6 , 1077 – 1089 , https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1993)006<1077:EOCPR>2.0.CO;2
author at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory. REFERENCES Berner , L. T. , and Coauthors , 2020 : Summer warming explains widespread but not uniform greening in the Arctic tundra biome . Nat. Commun. , 11 , 4621 , https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18479-5 . Brubaker , K. L. , D. Entekhabi , and P. S. Eagleson , 1993 : Estimation of continental precipitation recycling . J. Climate , 6 , 1077 – 1089 , https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1993)006<1077:EOCPR>2.0.CO;2
July) between thechilly Arctic coast and the northern tundra. Thelarger lakes show a 2" or 3" C. excess of temperature relative to land in autumn and an equal deficiency in early summer. The annual range is under 20" on thewestern Arctic coasts, but 27" to 30" only 50 miles fromthe northern shore. In eastern and southeastern Russiathe range is 34' to 39" C. The advance of spring and fall as shown by the fiveisothermal maps for different temperatures indicate strik-ingly how spring bursts upon the
July) between thechilly Arctic coast and the northern tundra. Thelarger lakes show a 2" or 3" C. excess of temperature relative to land in autumn and an equal deficiency in early summer. The annual range is under 20" on thewestern Arctic coasts, but 27" to 30" only 50 miles fromthe northern shore. In eastern and southeastern Russiathe range is 34' to 39" C. The advance of spring and fall as shown by the fiveisothermal maps for different temperatures indicate strik-ingly how spring bursts upon the
such a description is more or climatic dat,a available for ~l ~~k ~. clevelancl Abbe, jr., less applicable to the tundra areas of the Bering and publishilig in 1906 a section on climate in Alaska as part Arctic coasts can not be denied, but Alaska is t,oo varied of professioIlal pape,r N ~. 45, u. s. G. s. (1, 1341, in relief, climate, and resources to be pigeonholed with a summarized the rec,ords used in his report as follows : phrase. In complete contrast with the flat, treeless tundra is t
such a description is more or climatic dat,a available for ~l ~~k ~. clevelancl Abbe, jr., less applicable to the tundra areas of the Bering and publishilig in 1906 a section on climate in Alaska as part Arctic coasts can not be denied, but Alaska is t,oo varied of professioIlal pape,r N ~. 45, u. s. G. s. (1, 1341, in relief, climate, and resources to be pigeonholed with a summarized the rec,ords used in his report as follows : phrase. In complete contrast with the flat, treeless tundra is t
1. Introduction Environmental predictions of the Arctic face new challenges as sea ice diminishes faster than anticipated ( Yadav et al. 2020 ), exposing a vast area of the ocean that was previously covered by sea ice to the atmosphere in summer. This has resulted in unprecedented ocean surface warming ( Steele et al. 2008 ), which led to impacts on the marine and terrestrial ecosystems ( Lewis et al. 2020 ; Bhatt et al. 2017 ) and changes in air–sea gas exchange ( DeGrandpre et al. 2020
1. Introduction Environmental predictions of the Arctic face new challenges as sea ice diminishes faster than anticipated ( Yadav et al. 2020 ), exposing a vast area of the ocean that was previously covered by sea ice to the atmosphere in summer. This has resulted in unprecedented ocean surface warming ( Steele et al. 2008 ), which led to impacts on the marine and terrestrial ecosystems ( Lewis et al. 2020 ; Bhatt et al. 2017 ) and changes in air–sea gas exchange ( DeGrandpre et al. 2020
two ground layers over the United States areshown in Figs. 3b and c. The precipitation and evaporation rates during thesummer season are of the order of a few millimetersper day. This implies that the total water storage capacity of the two model layers 0c~ + f2) has a timeTABLE 1. Water storage capacity as a function of vegetation type used in the model. Water ~orage capacity (mm) Dese~ Tundra Grass Shrub Woodland
two ground layers over the United States areshown in Figs. 3b and c. The precipitation and evaporation rates during thesummer season are of the order of a few millimetersper day. This implies that the total water storage capacity of the two model layers 0c~ + f2) has a timeTABLE 1. Water storage capacity as a function of vegetation type used in the model. Water ~orage capacity (mm) Dese~ Tundra Grass Shrub Woodland
1. Introduction Barrow, Alaska, is located at the northernmost point of Alaska, on a broad sloping coastal plain that extends from the Brooks Range to the south to the Arctic Ocean ( Fig. 1 ). The coastline is heavily indented with shallow bays and lagoons, and the continental shelf is relatively narrow. The coastal region is predominantly low-lying wetland tundra, dotted by numerous thaw lakes. Sand and gravel barrier islands, island relics of earlier coastal retreat processes, and the
1. Introduction Barrow, Alaska, is located at the northernmost point of Alaska, on a broad sloping coastal plain that extends from the Brooks Range to the south to the Arctic Ocean ( Fig. 1 ). The coastline is heavily indented with shallow bays and lagoons, and the continental shelf is relatively narrow. The coastal region is predominantly low-lying wetland tundra, dotted by numerous thaw lakes. Sand and gravel barrier islands, island relics of earlier coastal retreat processes, and the
