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1. Introduction Observations show that sea surface temperatures (SSTs) often play a major role in midlatitude extreme precipitation events (e.g., caused by atmospheric rivers; Neiman et al. 2013 ). This is especially true in areas such as the Mediterranean ( Rebora et al. 2013 ), where sea–atmosphere interactions are influenced by complex coastal orography, leading to local meteorological processes whose complexity is often not fully interpreted by models ( Senatore et al. 2011 ). The impact
1. Introduction Observations show that sea surface temperatures (SSTs) often play a major role in midlatitude extreme precipitation events (e.g., caused by atmospheric rivers; Neiman et al. 2013 ). This is especially true in areas such as the Mediterranean ( Rebora et al. 2013 ), where sea–atmosphere interactions are influenced by complex coastal orography, leading to local meteorological processes whose complexity is often not fully interpreted by models ( Senatore et al. 2011 ). The impact
.g., Ramis et al. 1994 ; Doswell et al. 1998 ; Homar et al. 2002 ; Martín et al. 2007 ; Michaelides et al. 2018 ). The relatively warm Mediterranean Sea acts as a heat and moisture source during late summer and early autumn. Indeed, the maximum climatological frequency of flash flood producing HPEs occurs in autumn (e.g., Llasat et al. 2010 ). The combination of this factor with the presence of cold midlevel disturbances and maritime warm and moist air at low levels generates convective instability
.g., Ramis et al. 1994 ; Doswell et al. 1998 ; Homar et al. 2002 ; Martín et al. 2007 ; Michaelides et al. 2018 ). The relatively warm Mediterranean Sea acts as a heat and moisture source during late summer and early autumn. Indeed, the maximum climatological frequency of flash flood producing HPEs occurs in autumn (e.g., Llasat et al. 2010 ). The combination of this factor with the presence of cold midlevel disturbances and maritime warm and moist air at low levels generates convective instability
1. Introduction Unique morphological characteristics make the Mediterranean basin prone to natural hazards related to the water cycle ( Flaounas et al. 2019 ), in particular during autumn when the air–sea thermal contrast becomes remarkable. Steep slopes in the vicinity of coastal areas, and the Mediterranean Sea itself, which acts as a large source of moisture and heat, instigate rapid uplift of moist, unstable air, responsible for triggering condensation and convective instability processes
1. Introduction Unique morphological characteristics make the Mediterranean basin prone to natural hazards related to the water cycle ( Flaounas et al. 2019 ), in particular during autumn when the air–sea thermal contrast becomes remarkable. Steep slopes in the vicinity of coastal areas, and the Mediterranean Sea itself, which acts as a large source of moisture and heat, instigate rapid uplift of moist, unstable air, responsible for triggering condensation and convective instability processes
1. Introduction The Mediterranean Sea ( Fig. 1 ), a marginal basin located across a dynamic border that separates two different climatic regions (Europe and North Africa), extends over 3000 km in longitude and over 1500 km in latitude with an area of 2.5 × 10 12 m 2 , and it connects with the Atlantic Ocean through the Strait of Gibraltar and with the Black Sea through the Turkish Bosphorus and Dardanelles Straits. Semi-enclosed basins such as the Mediterranean are suitable for the
1. Introduction The Mediterranean Sea ( Fig. 1 ), a marginal basin located across a dynamic border that separates two different climatic regions (Europe and North Africa), extends over 3000 km in longitude and over 1500 km in latitude with an area of 2.5 × 10 12 m 2 , and it connects with the Atlantic Ocean through the Strait of Gibraltar and with the Black Sea through the Turkish Bosphorus and Dardanelles Straits. Semi-enclosed basins such as the Mediterranean are suitable for the
Mediterranean basin. The Alps are responsible for such deflections for the Northern Atlantic systems and the Atlas Mountains for the southern ones. These systems transit over the warm Mediterranean and western Europe, and find favorable conditions for cyclogenesis over the Western Mediterranean ( Buzzi and Tibaldi 1978 ). Also, Mediterranean disturbances frequently develop as a consequence of the interaction of an unusually deep upper-tropospheric trough and cold air with the relative warmth of the sea
Mediterranean basin. The Alps are responsible for such deflections for the Northern Atlantic systems and the Atlas Mountains for the southern ones. These systems transit over the warm Mediterranean and western Europe, and find favorable conditions for cyclogenesis over the Western Mediterranean ( Buzzi and Tibaldi 1978 ). Also, Mediterranean disturbances frequently develop as a consequence of the interaction of an unusually deep upper-tropospheric trough and cold air with the relative warmth of the sea
inland with heavy and persistent rainfall that became devastating floods in a few hours in small watersheds. In general, the precipitation systems affecting Liguria often originate over the Mediterranean Sea, and the interaction with the orography may enhance rainfall intensity. These are usually characterized by short durations (12–36 h) and high intensities ( Deidda et al. 1999 ; Boni et al. 2007 ). The polarimetric C-band radar that covers the region (location in Fig. 1b ) is therefore a
inland with heavy and persistent rainfall that became devastating floods in a few hours in small watersheds. In general, the precipitation systems affecting Liguria often originate over the Mediterranean Sea, and the interaction with the orography may enhance rainfall intensity. These are usually characterized by short durations (12–36 h) and high intensities ( Deidda et al. 1999 ; Boni et al. 2007 ). The polarimetric C-band radar that covers the region (location in Fig. 1b ) is therefore a
, uncertainty assessment, and comparison with rainfall–runoff model results. 3. The 25 October 2011 flash flood in the Magra River basin The Magra River basin ( Fig. 2 ) is located in central-northern Italy, at the border between the Tuscany and Liguria regions, with highest elevation at 1900 m MSL, and drains to the Ligurian Sea. The total drainage area of the study basin is 1717 km 2 , of which the Vara River (the major tributary of the Magra River) drains 605 km 2 . The climate is Mediterranean with dry
, uncertainty assessment, and comparison with rainfall–runoff model results. 3. The 25 October 2011 flash flood in the Magra River basin The Magra River basin ( Fig. 2 ) is located in central-northern Italy, at the border between the Tuscany and Liguria regions, with highest elevation at 1900 m MSL, and drains to the Ligurian Sea. The total drainage area of the study basin is 1717 km 2 , of which the Vara River (the major tributary of the Magra River) drains 605 km 2 . The climate is Mediterranean with dry
1. Introduction The Black Sea area, alongside southeastern Europe and the greater Mediterranean region, has been long recognized as a climate change hotspot ( Giorgi 2006 ). With a rise in temperature higher than the global average, the region is projected to experience more frequent droughts, predominantly driven by a decline in winter precipitation ( Tuel and Eltahir 2020 ). In summer, though climate projections are region dependent, drying is still common ( Giorgi and Lionello 2008
1. Introduction The Black Sea area, alongside southeastern Europe and the greater Mediterranean region, has been long recognized as a climate change hotspot ( Giorgi 2006 ). With a rise in temperature higher than the global average, the region is projected to experience more frequent droughts, predominantly driven by a decline in winter precipitation ( Tuel and Eltahir 2020 ). In summer, though climate projections are region dependent, drying is still common ( Giorgi and Lionello 2008
representation of moisture sources and sinks for ERA5 reanalysis data with different configurations of the Lagrangian models FLEXPART and FLEXPART-WRF for 2014, carried out for the North Atlantic region and most of Europe, taking into account that the version of WRF used is optimized for the Iberian Peninsula (IP) ( Insua-Costa and Miguez-Macho 2018 ; Insua-Costa et al. 2019 ), and the analyzed region includes two of the main global oceanic moisture sources, the Mediterranean Sea (MED) and the North
representation of moisture sources and sinks for ERA5 reanalysis data with different configurations of the Lagrangian models FLEXPART and FLEXPART-WRF for 2014, carried out for the North Atlantic region and most of Europe, taking into account that the version of WRF used is optimized for the Iberian Peninsula (IP) ( Insua-Costa and Miguez-Macho 2018 ; Insua-Costa et al. 2019 ), and the analyzed region includes two of the main global oceanic moisture sources, the Mediterranean Sea (MED) and the North
the review of Kirillin et al. (2012) concluded that year-round observational studies are needed. There are a number of recent lake–atmosphere eddy covariance process studies focused on the surface energy budget. Datasets from Liu et al. (2009 , 2012) on a southern U.S. reservoir showed synoptic weather events have the greatest influence on monthly surface heat fluxes. Seasonal and monthly net radiation and air temperature have been shown to control surface fluxes from a Mediterranean lagoon
the review of Kirillin et al. (2012) concluded that year-round observational studies are needed. There are a number of recent lake–atmosphere eddy covariance process studies focused on the surface energy budget. Datasets from Liu et al. (2009 , 2012) on a southern U.S. reservoir showed synoptic weather events have the greatest influence on monthly surface heat fluxes. Seasonal and monthly net radiation and air temperature have been shown to control surface fluxes from a Mediterranean lagoon
