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Argentina. With time, this will be a promising avenue to explore hail within this region, but currently the data record is not extensive enough for a thorough analysis. Fig . 1. Southern South America with topography shaded and the study area outlined. As a result, the most comprehensive way to examine the climatology of hail in subtropical South America and compare these results to other parts of the world is to use passive microwave satellite observations of ice hydrometeors. These measurements have
Argentina. With time, this will be a promising avenue to explore hail within this region, but currently the data record is not extensive enough for a thorough analysis. Fig . 1. Southern South America with topography shaded and the study area outlined. As a result, the most comprehensive way to examine the climatology of hail in subtropical South America and compare these results to other parts of the world is to use passive microwave satellite observations of ice hydrometeors. These measurements have
al. 2018 ; Bachmann et al. 2020 ; Singh et al. 2022 ; Nelson et al. 2022 ). However, few observational studies exist to verify these findings during real-world CI events. A second fundamental source of CI uncertainty results from the near-cloud environment being poorly represented on a variety of spatiotemporal scales owing to limited routine observations, and inadequate model configuration or initialization techniques (e.g., Wilson and Mueller 1993 ; Weckwerth and Parsons 2006 ; Bodine et
al. 2018 ; Bachmann et al. 2020 ; Singh et al. 2022 ; Nelson et al. 2022 ). However, few observational studies exist to verify these findings during real-world CI events. A second fundamental source of CI uncertainty results from the near-cloud environment being poorly represented on a variety of spatiotemporal scales owing to limited routine observations, and inadequate model configuration or initialization techniques (e.g., Wilson and Mueller 1993 ; Weckwerth and Parsons 2006 ; Bodine et
Period (15 October 2018–30 April 2019), and a 1.5-month intensive observation period (IOP; 1 November–15 December 2018) that included Gulfstream-1 (G-1) aircraft flights. The campaign overlapped with the collaborating multi-agency, National Science Foundation (NSF)-led Remote Sensing of Electrification, Lightning, and Mesoscale/Microscale Processes with Adaptive Ground Observations (RELAMPAGO) field campaign [see companion article by Nesbitt et al. (2021) ]. The processes targeted by CACTI
Period (15 October 2018–30 April 2019), and a 1.5-month intensive observation period (IOP; 1 November–15 December 2018) that included Gulfstream-1 (G-1) aircraft flights. The campaign overlapped with the collaborating multi-agency, National Science Foundation (NSF)-led Remote Sensing of Electrification, Lightning, and Mesoscale/Microscale Processes with Adaptive Ground Observations (RELAMPAGO) field campaign [see companion article by Nesbitt et al. (2021) ]. The processes targeted by CACTI
, mesoscale convective systems, multicell storms), and conceptual models of storm life cycle and life cycle transitions and their associated hazard probabilities, generated from U.S. storms consistent across global regions? How do proxies for severe storm frequency from satellites and large-scale models compare with detailed observations in severe storms, particularly in regions where the physical processes producing severe weather may differ? The answers to these questions ultimately impact our ability
, mesoscale convective systems, multicell storms), and conceptual models of storm life cycle and life cycle transitions and their associated hazard probabilities, generated from U.S. storms consistent across global regions? How do proxies for severe storm frequency from satellites and large-scale models compare with detailed observations in severe storms, particularly in regions where the physical processes producing severe weather may differ? The answers to these questions ultimately impact our ability
.5439/1482619 . 10.5439/1482619 Bang , S. D. , and D. J. Cecil , 2019 : Constructing a multifrequency passive microwave hail retrieval and climatology in the GPM domain . J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol. , 58 , 1889 – 1904 , https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-19-0042.1 . 10.1175/JAMC-D-19-0042.1 Blair , S. F. , and Coauthors , 2017 : High-resolution hail observations: Implications for NWS warning operations . Wea. Forecasting , 32 , 1101 – 1119 , https://doi.org/10.1175/WAF-D-16-0203.1 . 10.1175/WAF-D-16
.5439/1482619 . 10.5439/1482619 Bang , S. D. , and D. J. Cecil , 2019 : Constructing a multifrequency passive microwave hail retrieval and climatology in the GPM domain . J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol. , 58 , 1889 – 1904 , https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-19-0042.1 . 10.1175/JAMC-D-19-0042.1 Blair , S. F. , and Coauthors , 2017 : High-resolution hail observations: Implications for NWS warning operations . Wea. Forecasting , 32 , 1101 – 1119 , https://doi.org/10.1175/WAF-D-16-0203.1 . 10.1175/WAF-D-16
1. Introduction Subtropical South America, and in particular the La Plata basin of Argentina, has been identified as a region with some of the most intense convective storms on the planet. In particular, observations from the TRMM satellite have shown that especially deep and wide convective systems occur in this region ( Zipser et al. 2006 ; Romatschke and Houze 2010 ; Liu and Zipser 2015 ; Houze et al. 2015 ), and these storms produce a very large proportion of the annual rainfall for this
1. Introduction Subtropical South America, and in particular the La Plata basin of Argentina, has been identified as a region with some of the most intense convective storms on the planet. In particular, observations from the TRMM satellite have shown that especially deep and wide convective systems occur in this region ( Zipser et al. 2006 ; Romatschke and Houze 2010 ; Liu and Zipser 2015 ; Houze et al. 2015 ), and these storms produce a very large proportion of the annual rainfall for this
et al. 2018 ), affecting the Carcarañá River basin, a subbasin of the La Plata River basin. As such, the mountainous headwater region of this basin ( Fig. 1 ) is ideally suited to perform hydrometeorological studies of convection and flash flooding. To measure these intense convective storms and associated impacts, the Remote Sensing of Electrification, Lightning and Mesoscale/Microscale Processes with Adaptive Ground Observations (RELAMPAGO, https
et al. 2018 ), affecting the Carcarañá River basin, a subbasin of the La Plata River basin. As such, the mountainous headwater region of this basin ( Fig. 1 ) is ideally suited to perform hydrometeorological studies of convection and flash flooding. To measure these intense convective storms and associated impacts, the Remote Sensing of Electrification, Lightning and Mesoscale/Microscale Processes with Adaptive Ground Observations (RELAMPAGO, https
relative importance of various factors that impact deep convection initiation (CI) and growth are difficult to examine in observations, partly because factors are correlated and interact across a variety of spatiotemporal scales. In addition, comprehensive observations of near-cloud ambient conditions leading up to CI and subsequent evolution of convection are very limited, owing to the difficulty to target the precise location and timing of CI in a highly heterogeneous mesoscale environment. Several
relative importance of various factors that impact deep convection initiation (CI) and growth are difficult to examine in observations, partly because factors are correlated and interact across a variety of spatiotemporal scales. In addition, comprehensive observations of near-cloud ambient conditions leading up to CI and subsequent evolution of convection are very limited, owing to the difficulty to target the precise location and timing of CI in a highly heterogeneous mesoscale environment. Several
1. Introduction Thunderstorms maximize in frequency and intensity near large mountain ranges ( Zipser et al. 2006 ); however, ground-based observations are historically sparse in some of these locations around the world. Fortunately, the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) Precipitation Radar (PR) has provided a robust dataset of subtropical storm characteristics. Resulting studies using TRMM PR have shown observational evidence that convective echoes east of the Andes Mountains in
1. Introduction Thunderstorms maximize in frequency and intensity near large mountain ranges ( Zipser et al. 2006 ); however, ground-based observations are historically sparse in some of these locations around the world. Fortunately, the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) Precipitation Radar (PR) has provided a robust dataset of subtropical storm characteristics. Resulting studies using TRMM PR have shown observational evidence that convective echoes east of the Andes Mountains in
1. Introduction Satellite observations have revealed that some of the world’s most intense thunderstorms occur across subtropical South America and, more specifically, in northern and central Argentina (e.g., Zipser et al. 2006 ; Romatschke and Houze 2010 ; Cecil and Blankenship 2012 ; Houze et al. 2015 ). These thunderstorms typically develop near a secondary mountain range to the east of the Andes called the Sierras de Córdoba (SDC), and they have been associated with severe weather
1. Introduction Satellite observations have revealed that some of the world’s most intense thunderstorms occur across subtropical South America and, more specifically, in northern and central Argentina (e.g., Zipser et al. 2006 ; Romatschke and Houze 2010 ; Cecil and Blankenship 2012 ; Houze et al. 2015 ). These thunderstorms typically develop near a secondary mountain range to the east of the Andes called the Sierras de Córdoba (SDC), and they have been associated with severe weather
