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, radiosonde, dropsonde, and GPS radio occultation profiles ( Hersbach et al. 2020 ). The model includes coupling between the atmosphere and the land/ocean and handles convective parameterization using a bulk mass flux scheme ( ECMWF 2020 ). d. Methods At each 0.1°, we compile the diurnal variability by averaging the unconditional (i.e., including zeros) precipitation rates at each time step for the entire record. To conduct a comparison of the precipitation diurnal cycle from the three datasets, we
, radiosonde, dropsonde, and GPS radio occultation profiles ( Hersbach et al. 2020 ). The model includes coupling between the atmosphere and the land/ocean and handles convective parameterization using a bulk mass flux scheme ( ECMWF 2020 ). d. Methods At each 0.1°, we compile the diurnal variability by averaging the unconditional (i.e., including zeros) precipitation rates at each time step for the entire record. To conduct a comparison of the precipitation diurnal cycle from the three datasets, we
investigated based on the direct or remote influences of four large-scale triggers: Atmospheric circulations and patterns . For example, propagating Rossby waves originating in the west Pacific lead to upper-level enhanced anticyclones during the 1988 Great Plains drought ( Chen and Newman 1998 ), while the descending branch of the Hadley circulation is responsible for amplified subsidence and associated long-term precipitation deficits during the 2011 eastern China spring–summer drought ( Jin et al
investigated based on the direct or remote influences of four large-scale triggers: Atmospheric circulations and patterns . For example, propagating Rossby waves originating in the west Pacific lead to upper-level enhanced anticyclones during the 1988 Great Plains drought ( Chen and Newman 1998 ), while the descending branch of the Hadley circulation is responsible for amplified subsidence and associated long-term precipitation deficits during the 2011 eastern China spring–summer drought ( Jin et al
1. Introduction The Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO; Madden and Julian 1971 , 1972 ) is the dominant planetary-scale intraseasonal mode in the equatorial Indo-Pacific warm pool, characterized by a convection-circulation complex traveling slowly eastward with a period of about 30–90 days. The MJO modulates atmospheric (e.g., tropical cyclones), oceanic (e.g., chlorophyll), and coupled ocean–atmosphere [e.g., El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO)] phenomena in the tropics (e.g., Neale et al
1. Introduction The Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO; Madden and Julian 1971 , 1972 ) is the dominant planetary-scale intraseasonal mode in the equatorial Indo-Pacific warm pool, characterized by a convection-circulation complex traveling slowly eastward with a period of about 30–90 days. The MJO modulates atmospheric (e.g., tropical cyclones), oceanic (e.g., chlorophyll), and coupled ocean–atmosphere [e.g., El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO)] phenomena in the tropics (e.g., Neale et al
1. Introduction Currently, for the fields of hydrology, climatology, and meteorology, it is necessary to understand the origin of humidity and precipitation that occurs over a given region, especially on continents, in which water resources play a vital role ( Randhir 2012 ). Considering that approximately 90% of the water in the atmosphere comes from evaporation over the oceans, lakes, and other open water bodies, its atmospheric transport plays an important role in the precipitation
1. Introduction Currently, for the fields of hydrology, climatology, and meteorology, it is necessary to understand the origin of humidity and precipitation that occurs over a given region, especially on continents, in which water resources play a vital role ( Randhir 2012 ). Considering that approximately 90% of the water in the atmosphere comes from evaporation over the oceans, lakes, and other open water bodies, its atmospheric transport plays an important role in the precipitation
lower elevation under a warming climate, which could amplify the biannual nature of rainfall ( Munday et al. 2021 ). While coastal winds alternate from summer to winter according to the Indian monsoon, southeasterlies in the Turkana Valley prevail year-round and “attract” a sinking motion that cuts off moisture outflows from the Congo basin and dampens transient convective waves ( Rodwell and Hoskins 1995 ; Levin et al. 2009 ; Williams et al. 2012 ; Mekonnen and Thorncroft 2016 ). Aridity
lower elevation under a warming climate, which could amplify the biannual nature of rainfall ( Munday et al. 2021 ). While coastal winds alternate from summer to winter according to the Indian monsoon, southeasterlies in the Turkana Valley prevail year-round and “attract” a sinking motion that cuts off moisture outflows from the Congo basin and dampens transient convective waves ( Rodwell and Hoskins 1995 ; Levin et al. 2009 ; Williams et al. 2012 ; Mekonnen and Thorncroft 2016 ). Aridity
southeastern South America through Rossby wave teleconnections ( Ghil and Mo 1991 ; Cai et al. 2020 ). The impact of ENSO on South America climate is modulated by other large-scale oceanic and atmospheric patterns, such as Indian Ocean dipole (IOD) mode ( Chan et al. 2008 ), Southern Annular Mode (SAM) ( Gillett et al. 2006 ; Vera and Osman 2018 ), and Pacific–South American (PSA) pattern ( Irving and Simmonds 2016 ). These large-scale patterns affect local circulations, such as trade winds and the South
southeastern South America through Rossby wave teleconnections ( Ghil and Mo 1991 ; Cai et al. 2020 ). The impact of ENSO on South America climate is modulated by other large-scale oceanic and atmospheric patterns, such as Indian Ocean dipole (IOD) mode ( Chan et al. 2008 ), Southern Annular Mode (SAM) ( Gillett et al. 2006 ; Vera and Osman 2018 ), and Pacific–South American (PSA) pattern ( Irving and Simmonds 2016 ). These large-scale patterns affect local circulations, such as trade winds and the South
Integrated Forecast System (IFS), with 137 hybrid sigma-pressure levels in the vertical. The atmospheric model in the IFS is coupled to a land surface model (HTESSEL) and an ocean wave model (WAM). The CFSRv2 ( Saha et al. 2014 ) is produced by the second version of the NCEP Climate Forecast System (CFSv2), which uses a 3D-Var DA system and coupled atmosphere–ocean–land surface–sea ice system. The horizontal resolution is ∼38 km (T382) with 64 levels in the vertical. The global ocean is 0.25° at the
Integrated Forecast System (IFS), with 137 hybrid sigma-pressure levels in the vertical. The atmospheric model in the IFS is coupled to a land surface model (HTESSEL) and an ocean wave model (WAM). The CFSRv2 ( Saha et al. 2014 ) is produced by the second version of the NCEP Climate Forecast System (CFSv2), which uses a 3D-Var DA system and coupled atmosphere–ocean–land surface–sea ice system. The horizontal resolution is ∼38 km (T382) with 64 levels in the vertical. The global ocean is 0.25° at the
version 2 (MERRA-2) ( Randles et al. 2017 ) are used. To track the convective system and visualize cloud cover over the Black Sea, we also utilize measurements from the SEVIRI instrument on board the geostationary Meteosat-8 satellite over the Indian Ocean. The HRV channel window covers the Black Sea region. 3. Synoptic situation and impacts At the beginning of September 2018, the daily air temperature in Crimea was 7°–9°C above the climatic norm. The SST in the southern and eastern parts of
version 2 (MERRA-2) ( Randles et al. 2017 ) are used. To track the convective system and visualize cloud cover over the Black Sea, we also utilize measurements from the SEVIRI instrument on board the geostationary Meteosat-8 satellite over the Indian Ocean. The HRV channel window covers the Black Sea region. 3. Synoptic situation and impacts At the beginning of September 2018, the daily air temperature in Crimea was 7°–9°C above the climatic norm. The SST in the southern and eastern parts of
processing step relates the raw scintillation statistic σ ln ( I ) 2 (—) to C n 2 (m −2/3 ) for the optical and microwave scintillometer (step I in Fig. 1a ). This relationship, which assumes that the OMS is only sensitive to eddies in the inertial subrange, is expressed through wave propagation theory in a turbulent medium ( Tatarski 1961 ) from which it follows that (1) C n , opt 2 = C opt D opt 7 / 3 L − 3 σ ln ( I ) 2 , and (2) C n , mw 2 = C mw F mw 7 / 3 L − 3 σ ln ( I ) 2 , where F
processing step relates the raw scintillation statistic σ ln ( I ) 2 (—) to C n 2 (m −2/3 ) for the optical and microwave scintillometer (step I in Fig. 1a ). This relationship, which assumes that the OMS is only sensitive to eddies in the inertial subrange, is expressed through wave propagation theory in a turbulent medium ( Tatarski 1961 ) from which it follows that (1) C n , opt 2 = C opt D opt 7 / 3 L − 3 σ ln ( I ) 2 , and (2) C n , mw 2 = C mw F mw 7 / 3 L − 3 σ ln ( I ) 2 , where F
surface air temperature, particularly in the tropics, has already started to emerge ( Wei et al. 2014 ). In addition, southern China frequently witnesses the persistence of extremely high temperature or heat waves during summer. Rainfall following a dry spell can be the most anticipated weather phenomenon with possibilities to bring down the air temperature. However, the cooling effect of precipitation on air temperature has not been well investigated in southern China, especially on hourly time
surface air temperature, particularly in the tropics, has already started to emerge ( Wei et al. 2014 ). In addition, southern China frequently witnesses the persistence of extremely high temperature or heat waves during summer. Rainfall following a dry spell can be the most anticipated weather phenomenon with possibilities to bring down the air temperature. However, the cooling effect of precipitation on air temperature has not been well investigated in southern China, especially on hourly time
