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H. J. S. Fernando
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I. Gultepe
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C. Dorman
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E. Pardyjak
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Q. Wang
,
S. W Hoch
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D. Richter
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E. Creegan
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S. Gaberšek
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T. Bullock
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C. Hocut
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R. Chang
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D. Alappattu
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R. Dimitrova
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D. Flagg
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A. Grachev
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R. Krishnamurthy
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D. K. Singh
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I. Lozovatsky
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B. Nagare
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A. Sharma
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S. Wagh
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C. Wainwright
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M. Wroblewski
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R. Yamaguchi
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S. Bardoel
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R. S. Coppersmith
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N. Chisholm
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E. Gonzalez
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N. Gunawardena
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O. Hyde
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T. Morrison
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A. Olson
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A. Perelet
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W. Perrie
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S. Wang
, and
B. Wauer

Abstract

C-FOG is a comprehensive bi-national project dealing with the formation, persistence, and dissipation (life cycle) of fog in coastal areas (coastal fog) controlled by land, marine, and atmospheric processes. Given its inherent complexity, coastal-fog literature has mainly focused on case studies, and there is a continuing need for research that integrates across processes (e.g., air–sea–land interactions, environmental flow, aerosol transport, and chemistry), dynamics (two-phase flow and turbulence), microphysics (nucleation, droplet characterization), and thermodynamics (heat transfer and phase changes) through field observations and modeling. Central to C-FOG was a field campaign in eastern Canada from 1 September to 8 October 2018, covering four land sites in Newfoundland and Nova Scotia and an adjacent coastal strip transected by the Research Vessel Hugh R. Sharp. An array of in situ, path-integrating, and remote sensing instruments gathered data across a swath of space–time scales relevant to fog life cycle. Satellite and reanalysis products, routine meteorological observations, numerical weather prediction model (WRF and COAMPS) outputs, large-eddy simulations, and phenomenological modeling underpin the interpretation of field observations in a multiscale and multiplatform framework that helps identify and remedy numerical model deficiencies. An overview of the C-FOG field campaign and some preliminary analysis/findings are presented in this paper.

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William D. Collins
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Cecilia M. Bitz
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Maurice L. Blackmon
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Gordon B. Bonan
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Christopher S. Bretherton
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James A. Carton
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Ping Chang
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Scott C. Doney
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James J. Hack
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Thomas B. Henderson
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Jeffrey T. Kiehl
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William G. Large
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Daniel S. McKenna
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Benjamin D. Santer
, and
Richard D. Smith

Abstract

The Community Climate System Model version 3 (CCSM3) has recently been developed and released to the climate community. CCSM3 is a coupled climate model with components representing the atmosphere, ocean, sea ice, and land surface connected by a flux coupler. CCSM3 is designed to produce realistic simulations over a wide range of spatial resolutions, enabling inexpensive simulations lasting several millennia or detailed studies of continental-scale dynamics, variability, and climate change. This paper will show results from the configuration used for climate-change simulations with a T85 grid for the atmosphere and land and a grid with approximately 1° resolution for the ocean and sea ice. The new system incorporates several significant improvements in the physical parameterizations. The enhancements in the model physics are designed to reduce or eliminate several systematic biases in the mean climate produced by previous editions of CCSM. These include new treatments of cloud processes, aerosol radiative forcing, land–atmosphere fluxes, ocean mixed layer processes, and sea ice dynamics. There are significant improvements in the sea ice thickness, polar radiation budgets, tropical sea surface temperatures, and cloud radiative effects. CCSM3 can produce stable climate simulations of millennial duration without ad hoc adjustments to the fluxes exchanged among the component models. Nonetheless, there are still systematic biases in the ocean–atmosphere fluxes in coastal regions west of continents, the spectrum of ENSO variability, the spatial distribution of precipitation in the tropical oceans, and continental precipitation and surface air temperatures. Work is under way to extend CCSM to a more accurate and comprehensive model of the earth's climate system.

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Weiqing Qu
,
A. Henderson-Sellers
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A. J. Pitman
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T. H. Chen
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F. Abramopoulos
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A. Boone
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S. Chang
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F. Chen
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Y. Dai
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R. E. Dickinson
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L. Dümenil
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M. Ek
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N. Gedney
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Y. M. Gusev
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J. Kim
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R. Koster
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E. A. Kowalczyk
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J. Lean
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D. Lettenmaier
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X. Liang
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J.-F. Mahfouf
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H.-T. Mengelkamp
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K. Mitchell
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O. N. Nasonova
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J. Noilhan
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A. Robock
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C. Rosenzweig
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J. Schaake
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C. A. Schlosser
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J.-P. Schulz
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A. B. Shmakin
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D. L. Verseghy
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P. Wetzel
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E. F. Wood
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Z.-L. Yang
, and
Q. Zeng

Abstract

In the PILPS Phase 2a experiment, 23 land-surface schemes were compared in an off-line control experiment using observed meteorological data from Cabauw, the Netherlands. Two simple sensitivity experiments were also undertaken in which the observed surface air temperature was artificially increased or decreased by 2 K while all other factors remained as observed. On the annual timescale, all schemes show similar responses to these perturbations in latent, sensible heat flux, and other key variables. For the 2-K increase in temperature, surface temperatures and latent heat fluxes all increase while net radiation, sensible heat fluxes, and soil moistures all decrease. The results are reversed for a 2-K temperature decrease. The changes in sensible heat fluxes and, especially, the changes in the latent heat fluxes are not linearly related to the change of temperature. Theoretically, the nonlinear relationship between air temperature and the latent heat flux is evident and due to the convex relationship between air temperature and saturation vapor pressure. A simple test shows that, the effect of the change of air temperature on the atmospheric stratification aside, this nonlinear relationship is shown in the form that the increase of the latent heat flux for a 2-K temperature increase is larger than its decrease for a 2-K temperature decrease. However, the results from the Cabauw sensitivity experiments show that the increase of the latent heat flux in the +2-K experiment is smaller than the decrease of the latent heat flux in the −2-K experiment (we refer to this as the asymmetry). The analysis in this paper shows that this inconsistency between the theoretical relationship and the Cabauw sensitivity experiments results (or the asymmetry) is due to (i) the involvement of the β g formulation, which is a function of a series stress factors that limited the evaporation and whose values change in the ±2-K experiments, leading to strong modifications of the latent heat flux; (ii) the change of the drag coefficient induced by the changes in stratification due to the imposed air temperature changes (±2 K) in parameterizations of latent heat flux common in current land-surface schemes. Among all stress factors involved in the β g formulation, the soil moisture stress in the +2-K experiment induced by the increased evaporation is the main factor that contributes to the asymmetry.

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T. H. Chen
,
A. Henderson-Sellers
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P. C. D. Milly
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A. J. Pitman
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A. C. M. Beljaars
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J. Polcher
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F. Abramopoulos
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A. Boone
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S. Chang
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F. Chen
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Y. Dai
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C. E. Desborough
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R. E. Dickinson
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L. Dümenil
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M. Ek
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J. R. Garratt
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N. Gedney
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Y. M. Gusev
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J. Kim
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R. Koster
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E. A. Kowalczyk
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K. Laval
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J. Lean
,
D. Lettenmaier
,
X. Liang
,
J.-F. Mahfouf
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H.-T. Mengelkamp
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K. Mitchell
,
O. N. Nasonova
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J. Noilhan
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A. Robock
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C. Rosenzweig
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J. Schaake
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C. A. Schlosser
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J.-P. Schulz
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Y. Shao
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A. B. Shmakin
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D. L. Verseghy
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P. Wetzel
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E. F. Wood
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Y. Xue
,
Z.-L. Yang
, and
Q. Zeng

Abstract

In the Project for Intercomparison of Land-Surface Parameterization Schemes phase 2a experiment, meteorological data for the year 1987 from Cabauw, the Netherlands, were used as inputs to 23 land-surface flux schemes designed for use in climate and weather models. Schemes were evaluated by comparing their outputs with long-term measurements of surface sensible heat fluxes into the atmosphere and the ground, and of upward longwave radiation and total net radiative fluxes, and also comparing them with latent heat fluxes derived from a surface energy balance. Tuning of schemes by use of the observed flux data was not permitted. On an annual basis, the predicted surface radiative temperature exhibits a range of 2 K across schemes, consistent with the range of about 10 W m−2 in predicted surface net radiation. Most modeled values of monthly net radiation differ from the observations by less than the estimated maximum monthly observational error (±10 W m−2). However, modeled radiative surface temperature appears to have a systematic positive bias in most schemes; this might be explained by an error in assumed emissivity and by models’ neglect of canopy thermal heterogeneity. Annual means of sensible and latent heat fluxes, into which net radiation is partitioned, have ranges across schemes of30 W m−2 and 25 W m−2, respectively. Annual totals of evapotranspiration and runoff, into which the precipitation is partitioned, both have ranges of 315 mm. These ranges in annual heat and water fluxes were approximately halved upon exclusion of the three schemes that have no stomatal resistance under non-water-stressed conditions. Many schemes tend to underestimate latent heat flux and overestimate sensible heat flux in summer, with a reverse tendency in winter. For six schemes, root-mean-square deviations of predictions from monthly observations are less than the estimated upper bounds on observation errors (5 W m−2 for sensible heat flux and 10 W m−2 for latent heat flux). Actual runoff at the site is believed to be dominated by vertical drainage to groundwater, but several schemes produced significant amounts of runoff as overland flow or interflow. There is a range across schemes of 184 mm (40% of total pore volume) in the simulated annual mean root-zone soil moisture. Unfortunately, no measurements of soil moisture were available for model evaluation. A theoretical analysis suggested that differences in boundary conditions used in various schemes are not sufficient to explain the large variance in soil moisture. However, many of the extreme values of soil moisture could be explained in terms of the particulars of experimental setup or excessive evapotranspiration.

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