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Abstract
Mesoscale water vapor heterogeneities in the boundary layer are studied within the context of the International H2O Project (IHOP_2002). A significant portion of the water vapor variability in the IHOP_2002 occurs at the mesoscale, with the spatial pattern and the magnitude of the variability changing from day to day. On 14 June 2002, an atypical mesoscale gradient is observed, which is the reverse of the climatological gradient over this area. The factors causing this water vapor variability are investigated using complementary platforms (e.g., aircraft, satellite, and in situ) and models. The impact of surface flux heterogeneities and atmospheric variability are evaluated separately using a 1D boundary layer model, which uses surface fluxes from the High-Resolution Land Data Assimilation System (HRLDAS) and early-morning atmospheric temperature and moisture profiles from a mesoscale model. This methodology, based on the use of robust modeling components, allows the authors to tackle the question of the nature of the observed mesoscale variability. The impact of horizontal advection is inferred from a careful analysis of available observations. By isolating the individual contributions to mesoscale water vapor variability, it is shown that the observed moisture variability cannot be explained by a single process, but rather involves a combination of different factors: the boundary layer height, which is strongly controlled by the surface buoyancy flux, the surface latent heat flux, the early-morning heterogeneity of the atmosphere, horizontal advection, and the radiative impact of clouds.
Abstract
Mesoscale water vapor heterogeneities in the boundary layer are studied within the context of the International H2O Project (IHOP_2002). A significant portion of the water vapor variability in the IHOP_2002 occurs at the mesoscale, with the spatial pattern and the magnitude of the variability changing from day to day. On 14 June 2002, an atypical mesoscale gradient is observed, which is the reverse of the climatological gradient over this area. The factors causing this water vapor variability are investigated using complementary platforms (e.g., aircraft, satellite, and in situ) and models. The impact of surface flux heterogeneities and atmospheric variability are evaluated separately using a 1D boundary layer model, which uses surface fluxes from the High-Resolution Land Data Assimilation System (HRLDAS) and early-morning atmospheric temperature and moisture profiles from a mesoscale model. This methodology, based on the use of robust modeling components, allows the authors to tackle the question of the nature of the observed mesoscale variability. The impact of horizontal advection is inferred from a careful analysis of available observations. By isolating the individual contributions to mesoscale water vapor variability, it is shown that the observed moisture variability cannot be explained by a single process, but rather involves a combination of different factors: the boundary layer height, which is strongly controlled by the surface buoyancy flux, the surface latent heat flux, the early-morning heterogeneity of the atmosphere, horizontal advection, and the radiative impact of clouds.
Abstract
Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) infrared data were used to study the effect of land use on the diurnal surface temperature fluctuation. Five major land use types in southern Florida: the sandy soil agricultural area; the Everglades Agricultural Area (EAA); the conservation areas; the Natural Everglades Area (NEA); and Lake Okeechobee; were observed. The average daytime and nocturnal surface temperatures of sandy soil in agricultural areas was lower than that of organic soil in agricultural areas. The average temperature of organic soil in agricultural areas was lower than that of organic soil in conservation areas. The surface temperature in the wet marsh area was much lower than that in a large water-storage lake. A land use change in the EAA, and an increase in the water storage in Lake Okeechobee and the conservation areas could influence the microclimate.
Abstract
Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) infrared data were used to study the effect of land use on the diurnal surface temperature fluctuation. Five major land use types in southern Florida: the sandy soil agricultural area; the Everglades Agricultural Area (EAA); the conservation areas; the Natural Everglades Area (NEA); and Lake Okeechobee; were observed. The average daytime and nocturnal surface temperatures of sandy soil in agricultural areas was lower than that of organic soil in agricultural areas. The average temperature of organic soil in agricultural areas was lower than that of organic soil in conservation areas. The surface temperature in the wet marsh area was much lower than that in a large water-storage lake. A land use change in the EAA, and an increase in the water storage in Lake Okeechobee and the conservation areas could influence the microclimate.
Abstract
It is shown in the limit of small Ekman number that the preferred mode of the symmetric instability exhibits a slight angle of inclination with the direction of the mean flow. The sign of the angle depends an the sign of P − 1, where P is the Prandtl number. It is likely that owing to this effect the range of Richardson numbers for which the instability occurs is increased significantly beyond the limits derived by Kuo (1956) and by McIntyre (1970). Numerical computations are needed to establish this property quantitatively.
Abstract
It is shown in the limit of small Ekman number that the preferred mode of the symmetric instability exhibits a slight angle of inclination with the direction of the mean flow. The sign of the angle depends an the sign of P − 1, where P is the Prandtl number. It is likely that owing to this effect the range of Richardson numbers for which the instability occurs is increased significantly beyond the limits derived by Kuo (1956) and by McIntyre (1970). Numerical computations are needed to establish this property quantitatively.
Abstract
The present study reveals a close relation between the interannual variation of Aleutian low intensity (ALI) in March and the subsequent winter El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO). When March ALI is weaker (stronger) than normal, an El Niño (a La Niña)–like sea surface temperature (SST) warming (cooling) tends to appear in the equatorial central-eastern Pacific during the subsequent winter. The physical process linking March ALI to the following winter ENSO is as follows. When March ALI is below normal, a notable atmospheric dipole pattern develops over the North Pacific, with an anticyclonic anomaly over the Aleutian region and a cyclonic anomaly over the subtropical west-central Pacific. The formation of the anomalous cyclone is attributed to feedback of the synoptic-scale eddy-to-mean-flow energy flux and associated vorticity transportation. Specifically, easterly wind anomalies over the midlatitudes related to the weakened ALI are accompanied by a decrease in synoptic-scale eddy activity, which forces an anomalous cyclone to its southern flank. The accompanying westerly wind anomalies over the tropical west-central Pacific induce SST warming in the equatorial central-eastern Pacific during the following summer–autumn via triggering eastward-propagating warm Kelvin waves, which may sustain and develop into an El Niño event during the following winter via positive air–sea feedback. The relation of March ALI with the following winter ENSO is independent of the preceding tropical Pacific SST, the preceding-winter North Pacific Oscillation, and the spring Arctic Oscillation. The results of this analysis may provide an additional source for the prediction of ENSO.
Abstract
The present study reveals a close relation between the interannual variation of Aleutian low intensity (ALI) in March and the subsequent winter El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO). When March ALI is weaker (stronger) than normal, an El Niño (a La Niña)–like sea surface temperature (SST) warming (cooling) tends to appear in the equatorial central-eastern Pacific during the subsequent winter. The physical process linking March ALI to the following winter ENSO is as follows. When March ALI is below normal, a notable atmospheric dipole pattern develops over the North Pacific, with an anticyclonic anomaly over the Aleutian region and a cyclonic anomaly over the subtropical west-central Pacific. The formation of the anomalous cyclone is attributed to feedback of the synoptic-scale eddy-to-mean-flow energy flux and associated vorticity transportation. Specifically, easterly wind anomalies over the midlatitudes related to the weakened ALI are accompanied by a decrease in synoptic-scale eddy activity, which forces an anomalous cyclone to its southern flank. The accompanying westerly wind anomalies over the tropical west-central Pacific induce SST warming in the equatorial central-eastern Pacific during the following summer–autumn via triggering eastward-propagating warm Kelvin waves, which may sustain and develop into an El Niño event during the following winter via positive air–sea feedback. The relation of March ALI with the following winter ENSO is independent of the preceding tropical Pacific SST, the preceding-winter North Pacific Oscillation, and the spring Arctic Oscillation. The results of this analysis may provide an additional source for the prediction of ENSO.
Abstract
A relatively dry surface front during IOP-9 of the Taiwan Area Mesoscale Experiment (1600 UTC 14 June–1700 UTC 15 June) was analyzed. This surface front possessed appreciable baroclinity over southern China due to the southeastward intrusion of the polar air. As the cold air advanced the surface front over southern China moved southeastward and crossed Taiwan. Windshift was observed approximately 12 hours prior to the arrival of the cold air.
Detailed analysis of the small-scale frontal features were made based on high resolution P-3 aircraft observations. East of Taiwan the cold air boundary was rather diffuse with weak thermodynamic contrasts due to air mass modifications as the polar air traveled from northern China to the subtropics. The leading edge of the cold air resembled a density current with the following features: a vortex circulation with rising motion along the leading edge and sinking motion behind, low-level inflow from the rear with return flow above and a wavelike pattern at the top of the cold air. However, with calm winds in the environment the well-defined updraft at the nose was absent. In addition, the slope of the cold air boundary was rather gentle.
A weak mesolow formed over the, southwestern plain of Taiwan after the passage of the windshift line. It intensified after the arrival of the cold continental air. The shallow northeasterlies were blocked by the mountains leaving the warm, moist air over the southwestern plain, The relatively low pressure in this region resulted from increasing pressure elsewhere due to the passage of the windshift line followed by the arrival of the cold continental air.
Abstract
A relatively dry surface front during IOP-9 of the Taiwan Area Mesoscale Experiment (1600 UTC 14 June–1700 UTC 15 June) was analyzed. This surface front possessed appreciable baroclinity over southern China due to the southeastward intrusion of the polar air. As the cold air advanced the surface front over southern China moved southeastward and crossed Taiwan. Windshift was observed approximately 12 hours prior to the arrival of the cold air.
Detailed analysis of the small-scale frontal features were made based on high resolution P-3 aircraft observations. East of Taiwan the cold air boundary was rather diffuse with weak thermodynamic contrasts due to air mass modifications as the polar air traveled from northern China to the subtropics. The leading edge of the cold air resembled a density current with the following features: a vortex circulation with rising motion along the leading edge and sinking motion behind, low-level inflow from the rear with return flow above and a wavelike pattern at the top of the cold air. However, with calm winds in the environment the well-defined updraft at the nose was absent. In addition, the slope of the cold air boundary was rather gentle.
A weak mesolow formed over the, southwestern plain of Taiwan after the passage of the windshift line. It intensified after the arrival of the cold continental air. The shallow northeasterlies were blocked by the mountains leaving the warm, moist air over the southwestern plain, The relatively low pressure in this region resulted from increasing pressure elsewhere due to the passage of the windshift line followed by the arrival of the cold continental air.
Abstract
In this study, the performance of two advanced land surface models (LSMs; Noah LSM and Pleim–Xiu LSM) coupled with the fifth-generation Pennsylvania State University–National Center for Atmospheric Research Mesoscale Model (MM5), version 3.7.2, in simulating the near-surface air temperature in the greater Göteborg area in Sweden is evaluated and compared using the GÖTE2001 field campaign data. Further, the effects of different planetary boundary layer schemes [Eta and Medium-Range Forecast (MRF) PBLs] for Noah LSM and soil moisture initialization approaches for Pleim–Xiu LSM are investigated. The investigation focuses on the evaluation and comparison of diurnal cycle intensity and maximum and minimum temperatures, as well as the urban heat island during the daytime and nighttime under the clear-sky and cloudy/rainy weather conditions for different experimental schemes. The results indicate that 1) there is an evident difference between Noah LSM and Pleim–Xiu LSM in simulating the near-surface air temperature, especially in the modeled urban heat island; 2) there is no evident difference in the model performance between the Eta PBL and MRF PBL coupled with the Noah LSM; and 3) soil moisture initialization is of crucial importance for model performance in the Pleim–Xiu LSM. In addition, owing to the recent release of MM5, version 3.7.3, some experiments done with version 3.7.2 were repeated to reveal the effects of the modifications in the Noah LSM and Pleim–Xiu LSM. The modification to longwave radiation parameterizations in Noah LSM significantly improves model performance while the adjustment of emissivity, one of the vegetation properties, affects Pleim–Xiu LSM performance to a larger extent. The study suggests that improvements both in Noah LSM physics and in Pleim–Xiu LSM initialization of soil moisture and parameterization of vegetation properties are important.
Abstract
In this study, the performance of two advanced land surface models (LSMs; Noah LSM and Pleim–Xiu LSM) coupled with the fifth-generation Pennsylvania State University–National Center for Atmospheric Research Mesoscale Model (MM5), version 3.7.2, in simulating the near-surface air temperature in the greater Göteborg area in Sweden is evaluated and compared using the GÖTE2001 field campaign data. Further, the effects of different planetary boundary layer schemes [Eta and Medium-Range Forecast (MRF) PBLs] for Noah LSM and soil moisture initialization approaches for Pleim–Xiu LSM are investigated. The investigation focuses on the evaluation and comparison of diurnal cycle intensity and maximum and minimum temperatures, as well as the urban heat island during the daytime and nighttime under the clear-sky and cloudy/rainy weather conditions for different experimental schemes. The results indicate that 1) there is an evident difference between Noah LSM and Pleim–Xiu LSM in simulating the near-surface air temperature, especially in the modeled urban heat island; 2) there is no evident difference in the model performance between the Eta PBL and MRF PBL coupled with the Noah LSM; and 3) soil moisture initialization is of crucial importance for model performance in the Pleim–Xiu LSM. In addition, owing to the recent release of MM5, version 3.7.3, some experiments done with version 3.7.2 were repeated to reveal the effects of the modifications in the Noah LSM and Pleim–Xiu LSM. The modification to longwave radiation parameterizations in Noah LSM significantly improves model performance while the adjustment of emissivity, one of the vegetation properties, affects Pleim–Xiu LSM performance to a larger extent. The study suggests that improvements both in Noah LSM physics and in Pleim–Xiu LSM initialization of soil moisture and parameterization of vegetation properties are important.
Abstract
A composite quasi-Lagrangian kinetic energy budget is constructed from four synoptically similar cases of polar air penetration into the Caribbean from off the North American continent. Computations were carried out for both the upstream anticyclone and downstream cyclone accompanying the polar outbreak.
Use of the residual technique suggests an average upscale energy exchange of 45.0 W m−2 over the anticyclone volume with a corresponding downscale energy transfer of 59.0 W m−2 over the cyclone volume for the 24 h period centered on the time of furthest southward cold air thrust as defined by the 1000–500 mb thickness patterns. The results also indicate that the vertical flux of kinetic energy ranges from 50 to 100% of the horizontal flux of kinetic energy and is of opposite sign below 400 mb in the cyclone volume. Further-more, during incipient surface cyclogenesis the horizontal boundary flux of 17.7 m m−2 is a signification of the local kinetic energy generation of 24.5 W m−2 whereas in the following 12 h time period these numbers become 32.2 and 64.6 W m−2, respectively. The corresponding figures for the anticyclone region include a horizontal export of kinetic energy of 37.2 and 55.0 W m−2 and local kinetic energy destruction of 9.5 and 6.0 W m−2 respectively, for the same 12 h time periods.
Abstract
A composite quasi-Lagrangian kinetic energy budget is constructed from four synoptically similar cases of polar air penetration into the Caribbean from off the North American continent. Computations were carried out for both the upstream anticyclone and downstream cyclone accompanying the polar outbreak.
Use of the residual technique suggests an average upscale energy exchange of 45.0 W m−2 over the anticyclone volume with a corresponding downscale energy transfer of 59.0 W m−2 over the cyclone volume for the 24 h period centered on the time of furthest southward cold air thrust as defined by the 1000–500 mb thickness patterns. The results also indicate that the vertical flux of kinetic energy ranges from 50 to 100% of the horizontal flux of kinetic energy and is of opposite sign below 400 mb in the cyclone volume. Further-more, during incipient surface cyclogenesis the horizontal boundary flux of 17.7 m m−2 is a signification of the local kinetic energy generation of 24.5 W m−2 whereas in the following 12 h time period these numbers become 32.2 and 64.6 W m−2, respectively. The corresponding figures for the anticyclone region include a horizontal export of kinetic energy of 37.2 and 55.0 W m−2 and local kinetic energy destruction of 9.5 and 6.0 W m−2 respectively, for the same 12 h time periods.
Abstract
A composite cyclone-anticyclone couplet is constructed from four synoptically similar cases of polar air outbreaks into the Caribbean from off the North American continent. A quasi-Lagrangian vorticity budget is then computed from these data for two consecutive 12 h time periods.
The results show that the divergence and twisting terms in the lower troposphere, the horizontal advection term in the middle troposphere, and the horizontal, vertical and system advection in the upper troposphere are of primary importance in generating negative vorticity tendencies in the area toward (from) which the surface anticyclone (cyclone) is moving. In contrast, only the divergence term in the lower troposphere and horizontal advection term in the mid and upper troposphere are primarily responsible for the intensification and movement of the downstream cyclone.
Computations suggest an apparent anticyclonic vorticity source in the mid and upper troposphere and sink in the lower troposphere for the large-scale motions over the anticyclone region with the reverse true for the downstream cyclone region due to subgrid-scale processes.
Abstract
A composite cyclone-anticyclone couplet is constructed from four synoptically similar cases of polar air outbreaks into the Caribbean from off the North American continent. A quasi-Lagrangian vorticity budget is then computed from these data for two consecutive 12 h time periods.
The results show that the divergence and twisting terms in the lower troposphere, the horizontal advection term in the middle troposphere, and the horizontal, vertical and system advection in the upper troposphere are of primary importance in generating negative vorticity tendencies in the area toward (from) which the surface anticyclone (cyclone) is moving. In contrast, only the divergence term in the lower troposphere and horizontal advection term in the mid and upper troposphere are primarily responsible for the intensification and movement of the downstream cyclone.
Computations suggest an apparent anticyclonic vorticity source in the mid and upper troposphere and sink in the lower troposphere for the large-scale motions over the anticyclone region with the reverse true for the downstream cyclone region due to subgrid-scale processes.
Abstract
The evolution of a relatively dry front during the early-summer rainy Season of Taiwan is analyzed. Because of the synoptic subsidence associated with a subtropical high pressure cell over the northern South China Sea, prefrontal soundings over the Taiwan area exhibited a shallow, warm, moist layer in the lowest levels, capped by an inversion with extremely dry air aloft.
Over the Taiwan area, the southwest flow ahead of the surface front was more than 10 m s−1 at the 850-mb level. It interacted with the central mountain range, resulting in the windward ridge, leeside trough. Downstream of the blocked region, strong southwesterly winds (∼1 5 m s−1) developed in the lowest levels along the northwest coast, where the flow deflected by the mountain barrier merged with the undetected southwest monsoon flow.
The hilly terrain along the southeastern China coast retarded the cold air behind the surface front. The cold air was then ducted around the southeastern China coast. At the 850-mb level, a weak short-wave trough was embedded in the prefrontal monsoon flow. It moved off the southeastern China coast before cold northewterlies arrived at the surface. It deepened in the Ice side of the highlands along the southeastern China coast, with significant low-level warming and drying.
Aircraft observations of the leading edge of the shallow front revealed that a warm, moist tongue was ahead of the wind-shift line, where the winds shifted from northwesterlies to northeasterlies. Behind the leading edge, the air had a uniform equivalent potential temperature below 700 m. The stable, cold air was found 50 km north of the leading edge, with a warm, moist tongue ahead of it. East of Taiwan, the shallow, cold air behind the front appeared to be warmer than its western counterpart, with a well-mixed layer below 650 m. Since the prefrontal soundings over the Taiwan area were dry with a level of free convection (LFC) above the 800-mb level, local lifting by a shallow front was apparently not sufficient to initiate deep convection leading to heavy precipitation.
Abstract
The evolution of a relatively dry front during the early-summer rainy Season of Taiwan is analyzed. Because of the synoptic subsidence associated with a subtropical high pressure cell over the northern South China Sea, prefrontal soundings over the Taiwan area exhibited a shallow, warm, moist layer in the lowest levels, capped by an inversion with extremely dry air aloft.
Over the Taiwan area, the southwest flow ahead of the surface front was more than 10 m s−1 at the 850-mb level. It interacted with the central mountain range, resulting in the windward ridge, leeside trough. Downstream of the blocked region, strong southwesterly winds (∼1 5 m s−1) developed in the lowest levels along the northwest coast, where the flow deflected by the mountain barrier merged with the undetected southwest monsoon flow.
The hilly terrain along the southeastern China coast retarded the cold air behind the surface front. The cold air was then ducted around the southeastern China coast. At the 850-mb level, a weak short-wave trough was embedded in the prefrontal monsoon flow. It moved off the southeastern China coast before cold northewterlies arrived at the surface. It deepened in the Ice side of the highlands along the southeastern China coast, with significant low-level warming and drying.
Aircraft observations of the leading edge of the shallow front revealed that a warm, moist tongue was ahead of the wind-shift line, where the winds shifted from northwesterlies to northeasterlies. Behind the leading edge, the air had a uniform equivalent potential temperature below 700 m. The stable, cold air was found 50 km north of the leading edge, with a warm, moist tongue ahead of it. East of Taiwan, the shallow, cold air behind the front appeared to be warmer than its western counterpart, with a well-mixed layer below 650 m. Since the prefrontal soundings over the Taiwan area were dry with a level of free convection (LFC) above the 800-mb level, local lifting by a shallow front was apparently not sufficient to initiate deep convection leading to heavy precipitation.
Abstract
Insight into the global ocean energy cycle and its relationship to climate variability can be gained by examining the temporal variability of eddy–mean flow interactions. A time-dependent version of the Lorenz energy diagram is formulated and applied to energetic ocean regions from a global, eddying state estimate. The total energy in each snapshot is partitioned into three components: energy in the mean flow, energy in eddies, and energy temporal anomaly residual, whose time mean is zero. These three terms represent, respectively, correlations between mean quantities, correlations between eddy quantities, and eddy-mean correlations. Eddy–mean flow interactions involve energy exchange among these three components. The temporal coherence about energy exchange during eddy–mean flow interactions is assessed. In the Kuroshio and Gulf Stream Extension regions, a suppression relation is manifested by a reduction in the baroclinic energy pathway to the eddy kinetic energy (EKE) reservoir following a strengthening of the barotropic energy pathway to EKE; the baroclinic pathway strengthens when the barotropic pathway weakens. In the subtropical gyre and Southern Ocean, a delay in energy transfer between different reservoirs occurs during baroclinic instability. The delay mechanism is identified using a quasigeostrophic, two-layer model; part of the potential energy in large-scale eddies, gained from the mean flow, cascades to smaller scales through eddy stirring before converting to EKE. The delay time is related to this forward cascade and scales linearly with the eddy turnover time. The relation between temporal variations in wind power input and eddy–mean flow interactions is also assessed.
Abstract
Insight into the global ocean energy cycle and its relationship to climate variability can be gained by examining the temporal variability of eddy–mean flow interactions. A time-dependent version of the Lorenz energy diagram is formulated and applied to energetic ocean regions from a global, eddying state estimate. The total energy in each snapshot is partitioned into three components: energy in the mean flow, energy in eddies, and energy temporal anomaly residual, whose time mean is zero. These three terms represent, respectively, correlations between mean quantities, correlations between eddy quantities, and eddy-mean correlations. Eddy–mean flow interactions involve energy exchange among these three components. The temporal coherence about energy exchange during eddy–mean flow interactions is assessed. In the Kuroshio and Gulf Stream Extension regions, a suppression relation is manifested by a reduction in the baroclinic energy pathway to the eddy kinetic energy (EKE) reservoir following a strengthening of the barotropic energy pathway to EKE; the baroclinic pathway strengthens when the barotropic pathway weakens. In the subtropical gyre and Southern Ocean, a delay in energy transfer between different reservoirs occurs during baroclinic instability. The delay mechanism is identified using a quasigeostrophic, two-layer model; part of the potential energy in large-scale eddies, gained from the mean flow, cascades to smaller scales through eddy stirring before converting to EKE. The delay time is related to this forward cascade and scales linearly with the eddy turnover time. The relation between temporal variations in wind power input and eddy–mean flow interactions is also assessed.
