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Abstract
In a convective boundary layer, coherent structures were detected through their thermal signature on an artificial turf surface using high-frequency thermal infrared (TIR) imagery and surface layer turbulence measurements. The coherent structures cause surface temperature variations over tens of seconds and spatial scales of tens to a few hundred meters. Evidence of processes similar to those in a renewal event was observed. Spatial and temporal correlation analysis revealed the geometric and velocity information of the structures at the ground footprint of air temperature measurements. The velocity of the coherent structures was consistent with the wind speed at 6.5 m AGL. Practical implications of turbulence-driven surface temperature variability for thermal remote sensing are also discussed.
Abstract
In a convective boundary layer, coherent structures were detected through their thermal signature on an artificial turf surface using high-frequency thermal infrared (TIR) imagery and surface layer turbulence measurements. The coherent structures cause surface temperature variations over tens of seconds and spatial scales of tens to a few hundred meters. Evidence of processes similar to those in a renewal event was observed. Spatial and temporal correlation analysis revealed the geometric and velocity information of the structures at the ground footprint of air temperature measurements. The velocity of the coherent structures was consistent with the wind speed at 6.5 m AGL. Practical implications of turbulence-driven surface temperature variability for thermal remote sensing are also discussed.
Abstract
Stratocumulus clouds play an important role in climate cooling and are hard to predict using global climate and weather forecast models. Thus, previous studies in the literature use observations and numerical simulation tools, such as large-eddy simulation (LES), to solve the governing equations for the evolution of stratocumulus clouds. In contrast to the previous works, this work provides an analytic closed-form solution to the cloud thickness evolution of stratocumulus clouds in a mixed-layer model framework. With a focus on application over coastal lands, the diurnal cycle of cloud thickness and whether or not clouds dissipate are of particular interest. An analytic solution enables the sensitivity analysis of implicitly interdependent variables and extrema analysis of cloud variables that are hard to achieve using numerical solutions. In this work, the sensitivity of inversion height, cloud-base height, and cloud thickness with respect to initial and boundary conditions, such as Bowen ratio, subsidence, surface temperature, and initial inversion height, are studied. A critical initial cloud thickness value that can be dissipated pre- and postsunrise is provided. Furthermore, an extrema analysis is provided to obtain the minima and maxima of the inversion height and cloud thickness within 24 h. The proposed solution is validated against LES results under the same initial and boundary conditions.
Abstract
Stratocumulus clouds play an important role in climate cooling and are hard to predict using global climate and weather forecast models. Thus, previous studies in the literature use observations and numerical simulation tools, such as large-eddy simulation (LES), to solve the governing equations for the evolution of stratocumulus clouds. In contrast to the previous works, this work provides an analytic closed-form solution to the cloud thickness evolution of stratocumulus clouds in a mixed-layer model framework. With a focus on application over coastal lands, the diurnal cycle of cloud thickness and whether or not clouds dissipate are of particular interest. An analytic solution enables the sensitivity analysis of implicitly interdependent variables and extrema analysis of cloud variables that are hard to achieve using numerical solutions. In this work, the sensitivity of inversion height, cloud-base height, and cloud thickness with respect to initial and boundary conditions, such as Bowen ratio, subsidence, surface temperature, and initial inversion height, are studied. A critical initial cloud thickness value that can be dissipated pre- and postsunrise is provided. Furthermore, an extrema analysis is provided to obtain the minima and maxima of the inversion height and cloud thickness within 24 h. The proposed solution is validated against LES results under the same initial and boundary conditions.
In New Mexico, a first-of-its-kind network of seven large aperture scintillometer (LAS) sites was established in 2006 to measure sensible heat fluxes over irrigated fields, riparian areas, deserts, lava flows, and mountain highlands. Wireless networking infrastructure and auxiliary meteorological measurements facilitate real-time data assimilation. LAS measurements are advantageous in that they vastly exceed the footprint size of commonly used ground measurements of sensible and latent heat fluxes (~100 m2), matching the pixel size of satellite images or grid cells of hydrologic and meteorological models (~0.1–5 km2). Consequently, the LAS measurements can be used to validate, calibrate, and force hydrologic, remote sensing, and weather forecast models. Initial results are presented for 1) variability and error of sensible heat flux measurements by scintillometers over heterogeneous terrain and 2) the validation of the Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) applied to Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite imagery. Findings from this study are discussed in the context of researchers' and practitioners' data assimilation needs.
In New Mexico, a first-of-its-kind network of seven large aperture scintillometer (LAS) sites was established in 2006 to measure sensible heat fluxes over irrigated fields, riparian areas, deserts, lava flows, and mountain highlands. Wireless networking infrastructure and auxiliary meteorological measurements facilitate real-time data assimilation. LAS measurements are advantageous in that they vastly exceed the footprint size of commonly used ground measurements of sensible and latent heat fluxes (~100 m2), matching the pixel size of satellite images or grid cells of hydrologic and meteorological models (~0.1–5 km2). Consequently, the LAS measurements can be used to validate, calibrate, and force hydrologic, remote sensing, and weather forecast models. Initial results are presented for 1) variability and error of sensible heat flux measurements by scintillometers over heterogeneous terrain and 2) the validation of the Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) applied to Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite imagery. Findings from this study are discussed in the context of researchers' and practitioners' data assimilation needs.
Abstract
The effects of artificial turf (AT) on the urban canopy layer energy balance, air and surface temperatures, and building cooling loads are compared to those of other common ground surface materials (asphalt, concrete, and grass) through heat transfer modeling of radiation, convection, and conduction. The authors apply the Temperatures of Urban Facets in 3D (TUF3D) model—modified to account for latent heat fluxes—to a clear summer day at a latitude of 33° over a typical coastal suburban area in Southern California. The low albedo of artificial turf relative to the other materials under investigation results in a reduction in shortwave radiation incident on nearby building walls and an approximately equal increase in longwave radiation. Consequently, building walls remain at a relatively cool temperature that is similar to those that are adjacent to irrigated grass surfaces. Using a simple offline convection model, replacing grass ground cover with artificial turf was found to add 2.3 kW h m−2 day−1 of heat to the atmosphere, which could result in urban air temperature increases of up to 4°C. Local effects of AT on building design cooling loads were estimated. The increased canopy air temperatures with AT increase heat conduction through the building envelope and ventilation in comparison with a building near irrigated grass. However, in this temperate climate these loads are small relative to the reduction in radiative cooling load through windows. Consequently, overall building design cooling loads near AT decrease by 15%–20%. In addition, the irrigation water conservation with AT causes an embodied energy savings of 10 W h m−2 day−1. Locally, this study points to a win–win situation for AT use for urban landscaping as it results in water and energy conservation.
Abstract
The effects of artificial turf (AT) on the urban canopy layer energy balance, air and surface temperatures, and building cooling loads are compared to those of other common ground surface materials (asphalt, concrete, and grass) through heat transfer modeling of radiation, convection, and conduction. The authors apply the Temperatures of Urban Facets in 3D (TUF3D) model—modified to account for latent heat fluxes—to a clear summer day at a latitude of 33° over a typical coastal suburban area in Southern California. The low albedo of artificial turf relative to the other materials under investigation results in a reduction in shortwave radiation incident on nearby building walls and an approximately equal increase in longwave radiation. Consequently, building walls remain at a relatively cool temperature that is similar to those that are adjacent to irrigated grass surfaces. Using a simple offline convection model, replacing grass ground cover with artificial turf was found to add 2.3 kW h m−2 day−1 of heat to the atmosphere, which could result in urban air temperature increases of up to 4°C. Local effects of AT on building design cooling loads were estimated. The increased canopy air temperatures with AT increase heat conduction through the building envelope and ventilation in comparison with a building near irrigated grass. However, in this temperate climate these loads are small relative to the reduction in radiative cooling load through windows. Consequently, overall building design cooling loads near AT decrease by 15%–20%. In addition, the irrigation water conservation with AT causes an embodied energy savings of 10 W h m−2 day−1. Locally, this study points to a win–win situation for AT use for urban landscaping as it results in water and energy conservation.
Abstract
Eddy-viscosity closures for large eddy simulations (LES) of atmospheric boundary layer dynamics include a parameter (Smagorinsky constant c
s
), which depends upon physical parameters, such as distance to the ground, atmospheric stability, and strain. A field study [Horizontal Arrays Turbulence Study (HATS)] specifically designed to measure turbulence quantities of interest in LES, such as the parameter c
s
, is conducted. The instrumentation consists of two vertically separated horizontal arrays of 3D sonic anemometers, placed in the atmospheric surface layer. From 2D filtering and differentiating the velocity fields, subgrid-scale (SGS) and resolved quantities are computed. The parameter c
s
is obtained from the data by matching measured and modeled SGS dissipations under various flow conditions. Results indicate that c
s
is reduced near the ground, and also decreases rapidly with increasing stability in stable atmospheric conditions. A simple fit that parameterizes the data is proposed. The variability from one sample to another is studied by means of the probability density function (pdf) of c
s
. The pdfs show a most preferred value, which is essentially independent of the timescale used for statistical averaging. The width of the pdfs decreases with increasing averaging time, for unstable and neutral stability conditions. For stable conditions, the relative variability of the coefficient remains strong even for long averaging times, indicative of strong intermittency. In unstable conditions, c
s
is fairly independent of local strain-rate magnitude, supporting the basic scaling of the Smagorinsky eddy viscosity. For stable conditions, a transition occurs between small local strain-rate magnitudes, where c
s
is nearly constant, and high local strain-rate magnitudes, where c
s
decreases appreciably. The results suggest that when the filter scale approaches the local integral scale of turbulence (height above the ground or Obukhov length), one needs to include the friction velocity as relevant velocity to scale the eddy viscosity, in addition to the standard velocity scale of the Smagorinsky model based on filtered strain-rate magnitude. The analysis is repeated for the SGS heat flux, and for the associated eddy-diffusion coefficient (
Abstract
Eddy-viscosity closures for large eddy simulations (LES) of atmospheric boundary layer dynamics include a parameter (Smagorinsky constant c
s
), which depends upon physical parameters, such as distance to the ground, atmospheric stability, and strain. A field study [Horizontal Arrays Turbulence Study (HATS)] specifically designed to measure turbulence quantities of interest in LES, such as the parameter c
s
, is conducted. The instrumentation consists of two vertically separated horizontal arrays of 3D sonic anemometers, placed in the atmospheric surface layer. From 2D filtering and differentiating the velocity fields, subgrid-scale (SGS) and resolved quantities are computed. The parameter c
s
is obtained from the data by matching measured and modeled SGS dissipations under various flow conditions. Results indicate that c
s
is reduced near the ground, and also decreases rapidly with increasing stability in stable atmospheric conditions. A simple fit that parameterizes the data is proposed. The variability from one sample to another is studied by means of the probability density function (pdf) of c
s
. The pdfs show a most preferred value, which is essentially independent of the timescale used for statistical averaging. The width of the pdfs decreases with increasing averaging time, for unstable and neutral stability conditions. For stable conditions, the relative variability of the coefficient remains strong even for long averaging times, indicative of strong intermittency. In unstable conditions, c
s
is fairly independent of local strain-rate magnitude, supporting the basic scaling of the Smagorinsky eddy viscosity. For stable conditions, a transition occurs between small local strain-rate magnitudes, where c
s
is nearly constant, and high local strain-rate magnitudes, where c
s
decreases appreciably. The results suggest that when the filter scale approaches the local integral scale of turbulence (height above the ground or Obukhov length), one needs to include the friction velocity as relevant velocity to scale the eddy viscosity, in addition to the standard velocity scale of the Smagorinsky model based on filtered strain-rate magnitude. The analysis is repeated for the SGS heat flux, and for the associated eddy-diffusion coefficient (
Abstract
An analysis of dynamic Smagorinsky models is performed based on the Horizontal Array Turbulence Study (HATS) dataset. In the experiment, two vertically separated horizontal arrays of 14 three-dimensional sonic anemometers were placed in the atmospheric surface layer. Subgrid-scale (SGS) and resolved quantities are derived from 2D filtering at a filter scale Δ and differentiation of filtered velocity fields. In a previous study the Smagorinsky coefficient
Abstract
An analysis of dynamic Smagorinsky models is performed based on the Horizontal Array Turbulence Study (HATS) dataset. In the experiment, two vertically separated horizontal arrays of 14 three-dimensional sonic anemometers were placed in the atmospheric surface layer. Subgrid-scale (SGS) and resolved quantities are derived from 2D filtering at a filter scale Δ and differentiation of filtered velocity fields. In a previous study the Smagorinsky coefficient
Abstract
Mechanically driven orographic lifting is important for air pollution dispersion and weather prediction, but the small dimensions of mountain peaks often prevent numerical weather models from producing detailed forecasts. Mechanical lifting in stratified flow over mountains and associated thermodynamic processes were quantified and evaluated using Sheppard’s model to estimate the dividing-streamline height zt . The model was based on numerical weather model profile data and was evaluated using ground-based measurements on a tall, axisymmetric mountaintop for which the nondimensional mountain height h ND = hN/U ∞ is frequently between 1 and 10 (here h is mountain height, N is Brunt–Väisälä frequency, and U ∞ is upstream horizontal wind speed). Sheppard’s formula was successful in predicting water vapor saturation at the mountaintop, with a false-prediction rate of 14.5%. Wind speed was found to be strongly related to the likelihood of forecast errors, and wind direction, season, and stratification did not play significant roles. The potential temperature (water vapor mixing ratio) at zt in the sounding was found to be slightly smaller (larger) than at the mountaintop, on average, indicating less lifting than predicted and/or turbulent mixing with higher-altitude air during parcel ascent. Detailed analysis revealed that this difference is a result of less lifting than predicted for small U ∞/(Nh), whereas Sheppard’s model predicts the relative increase in uplift with increasing U ∞/(Nh) correctly for U ∞/(Nh) > 0.2.
Abstract
Mechanically driven orographic lifting is important for air pollution dispersion and weather prediction, but the small dimensions of mountain peaks often prevent numerical weather models from producing detailed forecasts. Mechanical lifting in stratified flow over mountains and associated thermodynamic processes were quantified and evaluated using Sheppard’s model to estimate the dividing-streamline height zt . The model was based on numerical weather model profile data and was evaluated using ground-based measurements on a tall, axisymmetric mountaintop for which the nondimensional mountain height h ND = hN/U ∞ is frequently between 1 and 10 (here h is mountain height, N is Brunt–Väisälä frequency, and U ∞ is upstream horizontal wind speed). Sheppard’s formula was successful in predicting water vapor saturation at the mountaintop, with a false-prediction rate of 14.5%. Wind speed was found to be strongly related to the likelihood of forecast errors, and wind direction, season, and stratification did not play significant roles. The potential temperature (water vapor mixing ratio) at zt in the sounding was found to be slightly smaller (larger) than at the mountaintop, on average, indicating less lifting than predicted and/or turbulent mixing with higher-altitude air during parcel ascent. Detailed analysis revealed that this difference is a result of less lifting than predicted for small U ∞/(Nh), whereas Sheppard’s model predicts the relative increase in uplift with increasing U ∞/(Nh) correctly for U ∞/(Nh) > 0.2.
Abstract
The breakup of stratocumulus clouds over coastal land areas is studied using a combination of large-eddy simulations (LESs) and mixed-layer models (MLMs) with a focus on mechanisms regulating the timing of the breakup. In contrast with stratocumulus over ocean, strong sensible heat flux over land prevents the cloud layer from decoupling during day. As the cloud thins during day, turbulence generated by surface flux becomes larger than turbulence generated by longwave cooling across the cloud layer. To capture this shift in turbulence generation in the MLM, an existing entrainment parameterization is extended. The MLM is able to mimic cloud evolution for a variety of Bowen ratios, but only after this modification of the entrainment parameterization. Cloud lifetime depends on a combination of the cloud-top entrainment flux, the Bowen ratio of the surface, and the strength of advection of cool ocean air by the sea breeze. For dry land surface conditions, the authors’ MLM suggests a breakup time a few hours after sunrise. For relatively wet land surface conditions, the cloud layer briefly breaks into partly cloudy conditions during midday, and the stratocumulus cloud reforms in the evening.
Abstract
The breakup of stratocumulus clouds over coastal land areas is studied using a combination of large-eddy simulations (LESs) and mixed-layer models (MLMs) with a focus on mechanisms regulating the timing of the breakup. In contrast with stratocumulus over ocean, strong sensible heat flux over land prevents the cloud layer from decoupling during day. As the cloud thins during day, turbulence generated by surface flux becomes larger than turbulence generated by longwave cooling across the cloud layer. To capture this shift in turbulence generation in the MLM, an existing entrainment parameterization is extended. The MLM is able to mimic cloud evolution for a variety of Bowen ratios, but only after this modification of the entrainment parameterization. Cloud lifetime depends on a combination of the cloud-top entrainment flux, the Bowen ratio of the surface, and the strength of advection of cool ocean air by the sea breeze. For dry land surface conditions, the authors’ MLM suggests a breakup time a few hours after sunrise. For relatively wet land surface conditions, the cloud layer briefly breaks into partly cloudy conditions during midday, and the stratocumulus cloud reforms in the evening.
Abstract
A detailed derivation of stratocumulus cloud thickness and liquid water path tendencies as a function of the well-mixed boundary layer mass, heat, and moisture budget equations is presented. The derivation corrects an error in the cloud thickness tendency equation derived by R. Wood to make it consistent with the liquid water path tendency equation derived by J. J. van der Dussen et al. The validity of the tendency equations is then tested against the output of large-eddy simulations of a typical stratocumulus-topped boundary layer case and is found to be in good agreement.
Abstract
A detailed derivation of stratocumulus cloud thickness and liquid water path tendencies as a function of the well-mixed boundary layer mass, heat, and moisture budget equations is presented. The derivation corrects an error in the cloud thickness tendency equation derived by R. Wood to make it consistent with the liquid water path tendency equation derived by J. J. van der Dussen et al. The validity of the tendency equations is then tested against the output of large-eddy simulations of a typical stratocumulus-topped boundary layer case and is found to be in good agreement.
