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, EnvironmentalResearch Laboratories, Boulder, 253 pp.Barnes, S. L., 1968: On the source of thunderstorm rotation. ESSATech. Memo. ERLTM-NSSL 38, NatI. Severe Storms Lab.,Norman, 28 pp. [NTIS, PB-!78970]-,1970: Some aspects of a severe, right-moving thunderstormdeduced from mesonetwork rawinsonde observations. I Atmos.Sci., 27, 634-648.Brandes, E. A., 1984: Relationships between radar-derived thermodynamic variables and tornadogenesis. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112,1033- 1052.Brooks, E. M., 1949: The tornado cyclone
, EnvironmentalResearch Laboratories, Boulder, 253 pp.Barnes, S. L., 1968: On the source of thunderstorm rotation. ESSATech. Memo. ERLTM-NSSL 38, NatI. Severe Storms Lab.,Norman, 28 pp. [NTIS, PB-!78970]-,1970: Some aspects of a severe, right-moving thunderstormdeduced from mesonetwork rawinsonde observations. I Atmos.Sci., 27, 634-648.Brandes, E. A., 1984: Relationships between radar-derived thermodynamic variables and tornadogenesis. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112,1033- 1052.Brooks, E. M., 1949: The tornado cyclone
, 9941 – 9964 , doi: 10.5194/acp-12-9941-2012 . Lerach , D. G. , and W. R. Cotton , 2012 : Comparing aerosol and low-level moisture influences on supercell tornadogenesis: Three-dimensional idealized simulations . J. Atmos. Sci. , 69 , 969 – 987 , doi: 10.1175/JAS-D-11-043.1 . Lerach , D. G. , B. J. Gaudet , and W. R. Cotton , 2008 : Idealized simulations of aerosol influences on tornadogenesis . Geophys. Res. Lett. , 35 , L23806 , doi: 10.1029/2008GL035617 . Lesins , G. B. , R
, 9941 – 9964 , doi: 10.5194/acp-12-9941-2012 . Lerach , D. G. , and W. R. Cotton , 2012 : Comparing aerosol and low-level moisture influences on supercell tornadogenesis: Three-dimensional idealized simulations . J. Atmos. Sci. , 69 , 969 – 987 , doi: 10.1175/JAS-D-11-043.1 . Lerach , D. G. , B. J. Gaudet , and W. R. Cotton , 2008 : Idealized simulations of aerosol influences on tornadogenesis . Geophys. Res. Lett. , 35 , L23806 , doi: 10.1029/2008GL035617 . Lesins , G. B. , R
Priority Areas Final Rep. A-4-2, 609 pp . Klemp , J. B. , and R. J. B. Rotunno , 1983 : A study of the tornadic region within a supercell thunderstorm. J. Atmos. Sci. , 40 , 359 – 377 . Laird , N. F. , L. J. Miller , and D. A. R. Kristovich , 2001 : Synthetic dual-Doppler analysis of a winter mesoscale vortex. Mon. Wea. Rev. , 129 , 312 – 331 . Lee , B. D. , and R. B. Wilhelmson , 1997a : The numerical simulation of non-supercell tornadogenesis. Part I: Initiation and
Priority Areas Final Rep. A-4-2, 609 pp . Klemp , J. B. , and R. J. B. Rotunno , 1983 : A study of the tornadic region within a supercell thunderstorm. J. Atmos. Sci. , 40 , 359 – 377 . Laird , N. F. , L. J. Miller , and D. A. R. Kristovich , 2001 : Synthetic dual-Doppler analysis of a winter mesoscale vortex. Mon. Wea. Rev. , 129 , 312 – 331 . Lee , B. D. , and R. B. Wilhelmson , 1997a : The numerical simulation of non-supercell tornadogenesis. Part I: Initiation and
resolve storm-scale features, such as the midlevel updraft structure and low-level mesocyclogenesis, but are not generally considered sufficient to accurately represent tornadogenesis. The domain is 120 km by 120 km by 17.5 km, with each simulation extending out through 2 h. Storms are triggered using an elipsoidal bubble of warm air of horizontal radius 10 km and vertical radius of 1400 m, with a maximum temperature perturbation of 1 K specified at the center of the bubble, decreasing to zero at its
resolve storm-scale features, such as the midlevel updraft structure and low-level mesocyclogenesis, but are not generally considered sufficient to accurately represent tornadogenesis. The domain is 120 km by 120 km by 17.5 km, with each simulation extending out through 2 h. Storms are triggered using an elipsoidal bubble of warm air of horizontal radius 10 km and vertical radius of 1400 m, with a maximum temperature perturbation of 1 K specified at the center of the bubble, decreasing to zero at its
Research. REFERENCES Barnes, S. L., 1970: Some aspects of a severe, right-moving thunderstorm deduced from mesonetwork rawindsonde observations. J. Atmos. Sci., 27, 634–678. ——, 1978: Oklahoma thunderstorms on 29–30 April 1970. Part I: Morphology of a tornadic storm. Mon. Wea. Rev., 106, 673–684. Brandes, E. A., 1984: Relationships between radar-derived thermodynamic variables and tornadogenesis. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112, 1033–1052. Brown, R. A., 1992: Initiation and evolution of updraft
Research. REFERENCES Barnes, S. L., 1970: Some aspects of a severe, right-moving thunderstorm deduced from mesonetwork rawindsonde observations. J. Atmos. Sci., 27, 634–678. ——, 1978: Oklahoma thunderstorms on 29–30 April 1970. Part I: Morphology of a tornadic storm. Mon. Wea. Rev., 106, 673–684. Brandes, E. A., 1984: Relationships between radar-derived thermodynamic variables and tornadogenesis. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112, 1033–1052. Brown, R. A., 1992: Initiation and evolution of updraft
. Thus the temperature field can be obtained to a good approximation by imposing constancy of static energy on each isentropic surface. This assumption naturally breaks down in very high-speed flows such as tornadoes but is nevertheless useful in tornadogenesis studies that are concerned with how larger scales of slower motion generate the tornado. Note that the kinetic energy of the irrotational primary flow, ( ∇ ϕ ) 2 /2, is a known quantity and, if essential in some applications, could be included
. Thus the temperature field can be obtained to a good approximation by imposing constancy of static energy on each isentropic surface. This assumption naturally breaks down in very high-speed flows such as tornadoes but is nevertheless useful in tornadogenesis studies that are concerned with how larger scales of slower motion generate the tornado. Note that the kinetic energy of the irrotational primary flow, ( ∇ ϕ ) 2 /2, is a known quantity and, if essential in some applications, could be included
formulations. Mon. Wea. Rev. , 126 , 1373 – 1395 . Farley , R. D. , and H. D. Orville , 1986 : Numerical modeling of hailstorms and hailstone growth. Part I: Preliminary model verification and sensitivity tests. J. Climate Appl. Meteor. , 25 , 2014 – 2035 . Finley , C. A. , W. R. Cotton , and R. A. Pielke Sr. , 2001 : Numerical simulation of tornadogenesis in a high-precipitation supercell. Part I: Storm evolution and transition into a bow echo. J. Atmos. Sci. , 58 , 1597
formulations. Mon. Wea. Rev. , 126 , 1373 – 1395 . Farley , R. D. , and H. D. Orville , 1986 : Numerical modeling of hailstorms and hailstone growth. Part I: Preliminary model verification and sensitivity tests. J. Climate Appl. Meteor. , 25 , 2014 – 2035 . Finley , C. A. , W. R. Cotton , and R. A. Pielke Sr. , 2001 : Numerical simulation of tornadogenesis in a high-precipitation supercell. Part I: Storm evolution and transition into a bow echo. J. Atmos. Sci. , 58 , 1597
of downbursts. Also, some of the studies that used the data from tall meteorological towers were focused on an entirely different subject, such as the thunderstorm dynamics at meso- α (200–2000 km) and meso- β (20–200 km) scales or the process of tornadogenesis. Therefore, little consideration was given to downburst outflows. Table 1. Summary of thunderstorm wind measurements from tall (≥100 m AGL) meteorological towers. This scarcity of downburst measurements from tall meteorological towers
of downbursts. Also, some of the studies that used the data from tall meteorological towers were focused on an entirely different subject, such as the thunderstorm dynamics at meso- α (200–2000 km) and meso- β (20–200 km) scales or the process of tornadogenesis. Therefore, little consideration was given to downburst outflows. Table 1. Summary of thunderstorm wind measurements from tall (≥100 m AGL) meteorological towers. This scarcity of downburst measurements from tall meteorological towers
vortex that intensifies in synchrony with the magnitude of the wind is expected. A local pressure fall with similar intensity forming over small vortices was also discussed in Nicholls and Montgomery (2013) . The authors examined the formation of such small vortices when making a decision on classifying the TCG mechanism in their simulations. In the first of a three-part study on nonsupercell tornadogenesis, Lee and Wilhelmsen modeled the creation of vortices in a similar scenario as observed here
vortex that intensifies in synchrony with the magnitude of the wind is expected. A local pressure fall with similar intensity forming over small vortices was also discussed in Nicholls and Montgomery (2013) . The authors examined the formation of such small vortices when making a decision on classifying the TCG mechanism in their simulations. In the first of a three-part study on nonsupercell tornadogenesis, Lee and Wilhelmsen modeled the creation of vortices in a similar scenario as observed here
. Mon. 'Wen. Rev., 94, 167-178.Brandes, E. A., 1978: Mesocyclone evolution and tornadogenesis: some observations. Mon. Wen. Rev., 106, 995-1011.Chalon, J.-P., J. C. Fankhauser and P. J. Ecclcs, 1976: Structure of an evolving hailstorm. Part I: General characteristics and cellular structure. Mon. H,'ea. Rev.. 104, 564-575.Cotton, W. R., R. A. Pielke and P. T. Gannon, 1976: Numerical experiments on the influence of the mesoscale circulation on the cumulus scale. J. ,4tmos. Sci., 33~ 252
. Mon. 'Wen. Rev., 94, 167-178.Brandes, E. A., 1978: Mesocyclone evolution and tornadogenesis: some observations. Mon. Wen. Rev., 106, 995-1011.Chalon, J.-P., J. C. Fankhauser and P. J. Ecclcs, 1976: Structure of an evolving hailstorm. Part I: General characteristics and cellular structure. Mon. H,'ea. Rev.. 104, 564-575.Cotton, W. R., R. A. Pielke and P. T. Gannon, 1976: Numerical experiments on the influence of the mesoscale circulation on the cumulus scale. J. ,4tmos. Sci., 33~ 252
