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Jason A. Milbrandt
,
Hugh Morrison
,
Daniel T. Dawson II
, and
Marco Paukert

: Effects of horizontal and vertical grid spacing on mixing in simulated squall lines and implications for convective strength and structure . Mon. Wea. Rev. , 143 , 4355 – 4375 , https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-15-0154.1 . 10.1175/MWR-D-15-0154.1 Lemon , L. , and C. A. Doswell III , 1979 : Severe thunderstorm evolution and mesocyclone structure as related to tornadogenesis . Mon. Wea. Rev. , 107 , 1184 – 1197 , https://doi.org/10

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Shiwei Sun
,
Bowen Zhou
,
Ming Xue
, and
Kefeng Zhu

. Geophys. , 53 , 323 – 361 , https://doi.org/10.1002/2014RG000475 . 10.1002/2014RG000475 Roberts , B. , M. Xue , A. D. Schenkman , and D. T. Dawson , 2016 : The role of surface drag in tornadogenesis within an idealized supercell simulation . J. Atmos. Sci. , 73 , 3371 – 3395 , https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-15-0332.1 . 10.1175/JAS-D-15-0332.1 Schwartz , C. S. , and Coauthors , 2009 : Next-day convection-allowing WRF Model

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Donald R. MacGorman
,
Donald W. Burgess
,
Vladislav Mazur
,
W. David Rust
,
William L. Taylor
, and
Brenda C. Johnson

-1625.Rotunno, R., 1981: On the evolution of thunderstorm rotation. Mon.Wea. Rev., 109, 577-586. ,1986: Tornadoes and tornadogenesis. Mesoscale Meteorology and Forecasting, P. S. Ray, Ed., Amer. Meteor. Soc., 414-436.Rust, W. D., W. L. Taylor and D. MacGorman, 1982: Preliminary study of lightning location relative to storm structure. AIAA Journal, 20, 404-409.Saunders, C. P. R., M. F. S. Wheeler, N. Jallo and E. R. Jayaratne, 1985: Ice crystal interactions with a riming target: Charge transfer

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Kelvin K. Droegemeier
and
Robert B. Wilhelmson

region ofevaporatively~cooled downdrafi air which spreads outalong the ground, beneath a precipitating cloud, haslong been recognized as a key component of convectivestorm dynamics. Outflows are known to trigger successive convective cells in multicellular storms (e.g.,Wilhelmson and Chen, 1982; Miller and Fankhauser,1983; Peterson,. 1984), sustain supercell storms by enhancing low-level convergence (e.g., Brandes, 1977,1984), and play a role in mesocyclogenesis and tornadogenesis (e.g., Brandes

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Robert Davies-Jones

: A non-Archimedean approach to the equations of convection dynamics. J. Atmos. Sci. , 36 , 2183 – 2190 . Davies-Jones , R. , 1982 : Observational and theoretical aspects of tornadogenesis. Intense Atmospheric Vortices, L. Bengtsson and J. Lighthill, Eds., Springer-Verlag, 175–189 . Davies-Jones , R. , 1984 : Streamwise vorticity: The origin of updraft rotation in supercell storms. J. Atmos. Sci. , 41 , 2991 – 3006 . Davies-Jones , R. , 1985 : Dynamical interaction between an

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John M. Peters
,
Jake P. Mulholland
, and
Daniel R. Chavas

result, given that low-level B may substantially influence CIN and LFC height calculations, and potentially influences tornadogenesis ( Brown and Nowotarski 2019 ; Coniglio and Parker 2020 ). The NSSL simulations ( Figs. 9e–h,q–t ) display nearly identical error patterns to the M09 scheme, suggesting that the trends in Fig. 9 are not a unique artifact of the M09 microphysics scheme. 2) Quantitative comparisons We quantitatively assess our formulas in two ways. First, we compute the

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Alan Shapiro
,
Joshua G. Gebauer
,
Nathan A. Dahl
,
David J. Bodine
,
Andrew Mahre
, and
Corey K. Potvin

. Nickels , 2008 : On the limitations of Taylor’s hypothesis in constructing long structures in a turbulent boundary layer . J. Fluid Mech. , 614 , 197 – 206 , https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112008003352 . Dowell , D. C. , and H. B. Bluestein , 1997 : The Arcadia, Oklahoma, storm of 17 May 1981: Analysis of a supercell during tornadogenesis . Mon. Wea. Rev. , 125 , 2562 – 2582 , https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1997)125<2562:TAOSOM>2.0.CO;2

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Matthew R. Kumjian
,
Kelly Lombardo
, and
Scott Loeffler

, 2014 : The influence of environmental low-level shear and cold pools on tornadogenesis: Insights from idealized simulations . J. Atmos. Sci. , 71 , 243 – 275 , https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-13-0159.1 . 10.1175/JAS-D-13-0159.1 Miller , L. J. , J. D. Tuttle , and C. A. Knight , 1988 : Airflow and hail growth in a severe northern plains supercell . J. Atmos. Sci. , 45 , 736 – 762 , https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1988)045<0736:AAHGIA>2.0.CO;2 . 10

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Qin Xu

introduced to modulate the background error standard deviations of X and Y (mainly in the vortex core), as shown in (4.8) where F is combined into γ ≡ ρ a F . REFERENCES Bluestein , H. B. , K. J. Thiem , J. C. Snyder , and J. B. Houser , 2019 : Tornadogenesis and early tornado evolution in the El Reno, Oklahoma, supercell on 31 May 2013 . Mon. Wea. Rev. , 147 , 2045 – 2066 , https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-18-0338.1 . 10.1175/MWR-D-18-0338.1 Caillault , K. , and Y. Lemaitre

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Jake P. Mulholland
,
Stephen W. Nesbitt
,
Robert J. Trapp
, and
John M. Peters

. Dickinson , 2006 : Supercell tornadogenesis over complex terrain: The Great Barrington, Massachusetts, tornado on 29 May 1995 . Wea. Forecasting , 21 , 897 – 922 , https://doi.org/10.1175/WAF957.1 . 10.1175/WAF957.1 Bryan , G. H. , and M. J. Fritsch , 2002 : A benchmark simulation for moist nonhydrostatic numerical models . Mon. Wea. Rev. , 130 , 2917 – 2928 , https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<2917:ABSFMN>2.0.CO;2 . 10.1175/1520-0493(2002)130<2917:ABSFMN>2.0.CO;2 Bunkers , M. J

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