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this document repeats or summarizes material contained in them. The objectives of the ICRCCM studies during 1982–88 were the following: to develop a better understanding of the differences in radiation model approaches, to understand how these differences affect model sensitivity, to evaluate the effects of simplifying assumptions, to evaluate the ability of the radiation models to simulate the real atmosphere, and to evaluate the effect of using different sources of spectral line data in the
this document repeats or summarizes material contained in them. The objectives of the ICRCCM studies during 1982–88 were the following: to develop a better understanding of the differences in radiation model approaches, to understand how these differences affect model sensitivity, to evaluate the effects of simplifying assumptions, to evaluate the ability of the radiation models to simulate the real atmosphere, and to evaluate the effect of using different sources of spectral line data in the
general circulation of the atmosphere based on physical principles ( Abbe 1892 ), including the Coriolis force, well in advance of work by Teisserenc de Bort (1883) , Exner (1913) , Walker (1923) , and others. Figure 21-3 shows the Northern Hemisphere sea level pressure and prevailing winds for January from his analysis. Dall’s (1879) regional map for the same month ( Fig. 21-4 , top panel) shows a more accurate placement of the Aleutian low based on station data that were unavailable to Ferrel
general circulation of the atmosphere based on physical principles ( Abbe 1892 ), including the Coriolis force, well in advance of work by Teisserenc de Bort (1883) , Exner (1913) , Walker (1923) , and others. Figure 21-3 shows the Northern Hemisphere sea level pressure and prevailing winds for January from his analysis. Dall’s (1879) regional map for the same month ( Fig. 21-4 , top panel) shows a more accurate placement of the Aleutian low based on station data that were unavailable to Ferrel
with unresolved motions of the water. We focus on dynamical and numerical aspects, and do not discuss regional and coastal ocean applications, biogeochemistry, or process modeling. Further discussion of ocean physics and dynamics is given in the chapter by Carl Wunsch and colleague, in this volume ( Wunsch and Ferrari 2019 ). Even sea ice and terrestrial ice sheet models can be said to have dynamical cores, in the sense that they include dynamical equations that govern the motions of the ice. Prior
with unresolved motions of the water. We focus on dynamical and numerical aspects, and do not discuss regional and coastal ocean applications, biogeochemistry, or process modeling. Further discussion of ocean physics and dynamics is given in the chapter by Carl Wunsch and colleague, in this volume ( Wunsch and Ferrari 2019 ). Even sea ice and terrestrial ice sheet models can be said to have dynamical cores, in the sense that they include dynamical equations that govern the motions of the ice. Prior
simulates similar diurnal cycle results for given traffic and meteorological data from ECMWF, but only when increasing humidity by about 10% in the upper troposphere. Extrapolation with global/regional RF ratios from several models implies a global net RF of about 50 mW m −2 (40–80 mW m −2 ; Schumann and Graf 2013 ). These results were used to assess the mean RF and its uncertainty range ( IPCC 2013 ). Recently, CoCiP was run coupled with CAM3+/IMPACT to study the effects of humidity exchanges between
simulates similar diurnal cycle results for given traffic and meteorological data from ECMWF, but only when increasing humidity by about 10% in the upper troposphere. Extrapolation with global/regional RF ratios from several models implies a global net RF of about 50 mW m −2 (40–80 mW m −2 ; Schumann and Graf 2013 ). These results were used to assess the mean RF and its uncertainty range ( IPCC 2013 ). Recently, CoCiP was run coupled with CAM3+/IMPACT to study the effects of humidity exchanges between
observations and overall difficulty. The figure is made by the coauthors using a database provided by F. Yang, of NOAA/NCEP. m. Regional models As in the previous era, many NWP centers (ECMWF excepted) also dedicated some resources to shorter-range regional models with higher resolution and more sophisticated parameterizations of subgrid-scale processes. These regional models provided improved precipitation fields, orographic and coastal effects, and representation of clouds and near-surface details
observations and overall difficulty. The figure is made by the coauthors using a database provided by F. Yang, of NOAA/NCEP. m. Regional models As in the previous era, many NWP centers (ECMWF excepted) also dedicated some resources to shorter-range regional models with higher resolution and more sophisticated parameterizations of subgrid-scale processes. These regional models provided improved precipitation fields, orographic and coastal effects, and representation of clouds and near-surface details
adequate for closure studies. However, improved knowledge of source strengths of anthropogenic aerosols came with the realization that aerosol loading and optical properties are highly variable both seasonally and geographically. It became evident that inclusion of the local aerosol was required for closure studies and for the characterization of regional and global impacts necessary for improved understanding of climate change. Thus, it became necessary for ARM to address more realistic aerosol
adequate for closure studies. However, improved knowledge of source strengths of anthropogenic aerosols came with the realization that aerosol loading and optical properties are highly variable both seasonally and geographically. It became evident that inclusion of the local aerosol was required for closure studies and for the characterization of regional and global impacts necessary for improved understanding of climate change. Thus, it became necessary for ARM to address more realistic aerosol
1. Introduction How do we define the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL)? Here are some definitions from textbooks: “that part of the troposphere that is directly influenced by the presence of the earth’s surface, and responds to surface forcings with a timescale of about an hour or less” ( Stull 1988 , p. 2). “the layer of air directly above the earth’s surface in which the effects of the surface (friction, heating, and cooling) are felt directly on time scales less than a day, and in which
1. Introduction How do we define the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL)? Here are some definitions from textbooks: “that part of the troposphere that is directly influenced by the presence of the earth’s surface, and responds to surface forcings with a timescale of about an hour or less” ( Stull 1988 , p. 2). “the layer of air directly above the earth’s surface in which the effects of the surface (friction, heating, and cooling) are felt directly on time scales less than a day, and in which
drives the large-scale dynamics that moves energy from the tropics toward the poles. Radiation calculations are therefore essential for climate and weather simulations, but are themselves quite complex even without considering the effects of variable and inhomogeneous clouds. Clear-sky radiative transfer calculations have to account for thousands of absorption lines due to water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other gases, which are irregularly distributed across the spectrum and have shapes dependent on
drives the large-scale dynamics that moves energy from the tropics toward the poles. Radiation calculations are therefore essential for climate and weather simulations, but are themselves quite complex even without considering the effects of variable and inhomogeneous clouds. Clear-sky radiative transfer calculations have to account for thousands of absorption lines due to water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other gases, which are irregularly distributed across the spectrum and have shapes dependent on
: 10.1016/S0167-2789(99)00104-9 . Greenwald , T. J. , G. L. Stephens , S. A. Christopher , and T. H. Vonder Haar , 1995 : Observations of the global characteristics and regional radiative effects of marine cloud liquid water . J. Climate , 8 , 2928 – 2946 , doi: 10.1175/1520-0442(1995)008<2928:OOTGCA>2.0.CO;2 . Gregory , D. , 2001 : Estimation of entrainment rate in simple models of convective clouds . Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc. , 127 , 53 – 72 , doi: 10.1002/qj.49712757104
: 10.1016/S0167-2789(99)00104-9 . Greenwald , T. J. , G. L. Stephens , S. A. Christopher , and T. H. Vonder Haar , 1995 : Observations of the global characteristics and regional radiative effects of marine cloud liquid water . J. Climate , 8 , 2928 – 2946 , doi: 10.1175/1520-0442(1995)008<2928:OOTGCA>2.0.CO;2 . Gregory , D. , 2001 : Estimation of entrainment rate in simple models of convective clouds . Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc. , 127 , 53 – 72 , doi: 10.1002/qj.49712757104
development of crop and agriculture management models in ESMs is still in its infancy. For instance, substantial uncertainties exist in the modeled temperature effects of irrigation on regional climate in ESMs ( Kueppers et al. 2007 ; Sacks et al. 2009 ). Future priorities should focus on representing complex interactions between agricultural management and water-system components at various spatial and temporal scales. e. Impact of irrigation on climate Many areas of the world have seen a recent
development of crop and agriculture management models in ESMs is still in its infancy. For instance, substantial uncertainties exist in the modeled temperature effects of irrigation on regional climate in ESMs ( Kueppers et al. 2007 ; Sacks et al. 2009 ). Future priorities should focus on representing complex interactions between agricultural management and water-system components at various spatial and temporal scales. e. Impact of irrigation on climate Many areas of the world have seen a recent
