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Changes in the salinity concentration of coastal waters during extreme meteorological conditions of droughts and floods can result in substantial short- and long-term environmental responses. Long-term weather extremes, such as droughts, can have devastating environmental and eco-nomic effects on many societal sectors including water management, energy production, and agricultural crops ( Wilhite 2000 ). In the United States the 2012 drought affected 22 states and cost an estimated $30
Changes in the salinity concentration of coastal waters during extreme meteorological conditions of droughts and floods can result in substantial short- and long-term environmental responses. Long-term weather extremes, such as droughts, can have devastating environmental and eco-nomic effects on many societal sectors including water management, energy production, and agricultural crops ( Wilhite 2000 ). In the United States the 2012 drought affected 22 states and cost an estimated $30
A synthesis of present knowledge about the formation and evolution of vertical and horizontal variability in near-surface salinity at scales relevant to satellite salinity is presented. Photo: Raindrops on a water surface. [ID 5563454 ©Sailorman: Dreamstime.com .] L-band microwave radiometers on both the Soil Moisture Ocean Salinity (SMOS; Mecklenburg et al. 2012 ) and Aquarius/Satélite de Aplicaciones Científicas-D (SAC-D) ( Lagerloef 2012 ) satellites have now demonstrated that they are
A synthesis of present knowledge about the formation and evolution of vertical and horizontal variability in near-surface salinity at scales relevant to satellite salinity is presented. Photo: Raindrops on a water surface. [ID 5563454 ©Sailorman: Dreamstime.com .] L-band microwave radiometers on both the Soil Moisture Ocean Salinity (SMOS; Mecklenburg et al. 2012 ) and Aquarius/Satélite de Aplicaciones Científicas-D (SAC-D) ( Lagerloef 2012 ) satellites have now demonstrated that they are
Measurements of salinity by fishermen in knee-deep water reveal a seasonal “river in the sea” flowing along the eastern coast of India The Indian Ocean is the only tropical ocean that is entirely bounded by a landmass to the north. In boreal summer, this unique geographical setting allows for a large differential heating between the Asian subcontinent and the ocean to the south that drives the most dramatic monsoonal wind system in the world. The southwest monsoon roughly lasts from June to
Measurements of salinity by fishermen in knee-deep water reveal a seasonal “river in the sea” flowing along the eastern coast of India The Indian Ocean is the only tropical ocean that is entirely bounded by a landmass to the north. In boreal summer, this unique geographical setting allows for a large differential heating between the Asian subcontinent and the ocean to the south that drives the most dramatic monsoonal wind system in the world. The southwest monsoon roughly lasts from June to
Abstract
Tropical cyclone (TC) rapid intensification (RI) is difficult to predict and poses a formidable threat to coastal populations. A warm upper ocean is well known to favor RI, but the role of ocean salinity is less clear. This study shows a strong inverse relationship between salinity and TC RI in the eastern Caribbean and western tropical Atlantic due to near-surface freshening from the Amazon–Orinoco River system. In this region, rapidly intensifying TCs induce a much stronger surface enthalpy flux compared to more weakly intensifying storms, in part due to a reduction in SST cooling caused by salinity stratification. This reduction has a noticeable positive impact on TCs undergoing RI, but the impact of salinity on more weakly intensifying storms is insignificant. These statistical results are confirmed through experiments with an ocean mixed layer model, which show that the salinity-induced reduction in SST cold wakes increases significantly as the storm’s intensification rate increases. Currently, operational statistical–dynamical RI models do not use salinity as a predictor. Through experiments with a statistical RI prediction scheme, it is found that the inclusion of surface salinity significantly improves the RI detection skill, offering promise for improved operational RI prediction. Satellite surface salinity may be valuable for this purpose, given its global coverage and availability in near–real time.
Abstract
Tropical cyclone (TC) rapid intensification (RI) is difficult to predict and poses a formidable threat to coastal populations. A warm upper ocean is well known to favor RI, but the role of ocean salinity is less clear. This study shows a strong inverse relationship between salinity and TC RI in the eastern Caribbean and western tropical Atlantic due to near-surface freshening from the Amazon–Orinoco River system. In this region, rapidly intensifying TCs induce a much stronger surface enthalpy flux compared to more weakly intensifying storms, in part due to a reduction in SST cooling caused by salinity stratification. This reduction has a noticeable positive impact on TCs undergoing RI, but the impact of salinity on more weakly intensifying storms is insignificant. These statistical results are confirmed through experiments with an ocean mixed layer model, which show that the salinity-induced reduction in SST cold wakes increases significantly as the storm’s intensification rate increases. Currently, operational statistical–dynamical RI models do not use salinity as a predictor. Through experiments with a statistical RI prediction scheme, it is found that the inclusion of surface salinity significantly improves the RI detection skill, offering promise for improved operational RI prediction. Satellite surface salinity may be valuable for this purpose, given its global coverage and availability in near–real time.
BACKGROUND: SEAWATER ICE AND ICICLES. The major characteristic of ice formed of seawater is that it contains salts, and its salinity is measurable ( Cox and Weeks 1974 ). The U.S. National Snow and Ice Data Center ( http://nsidc.org/cryosphere/seaice/index.html ) offers the most comprehensive approach to this question. Sea ice (and sea icicles) is common in polar and subpolar regions ( Ehn et al. 2007 ). Freshwater icicles are also frequent in continental midlatitude areas, including inland
BACKGROUND: SEAWATER ICE AND ICICLES. The major characteristic of ice formed of seawater is that it contains salts, and its salinity is measurable ( Cox and Weeks 1974 ). The U.S. National Snow and Ice Data Center ( http://nsidc.org/cryosphere/seaice/index.html ) offers the most comprehensive approach to this question. Sea ice (and sea icicles) is common in polar and subpolar regions ( Ehn et al. 2007 ). Freshwater icicles are also frequent in continental midlatitude areas, including inland
-ocean structure and its linkage to the northern Indian Ocean (IO) has been impeded because of uncertainty in the freshwater distribution, set by high rainfall and river runoff. Since shallow, salinity-controlled mixed layers (MLs) have a strong influence on the distribution of upper-ocean heat content and sea surface temperature (SST), determining the mixing pathways of river runoff and quantifying the upper-ocean freshwater budget are a priority. The importance of freshwater inputs and formation of shallow
-ocean structure and its linkage to the northern Indian Ocean (IO) has been impeded because of uncertainty in the freshwater distribution, set by high rainfall and river runoff. Since shallow, salinity-controlled mixed layers (MLs) have a strong influence on the distribution of upper-ocean heat content and sea surface temperature (SST), determining the mixing pathways of river runoff and quantifying the upper-ocean freshwater budget are a priority. The importance of freshwater inputs and formation of shallow
to the warmer water in the east. The sea surface salinity (SSS; Fig. 1b ) is higher in the west than in the east ( Vinayachandran et al. 2013 ). Most remarkably, the western part of the southern BoB is marked by the intense monsoon current that flows into the BoB carrying higher-salinity Arabian Sea Water. The atmosphere above the cold pool is characterized by a minimum in seasonal total rainfall ( Fig. 1a ) and has the lowest amount of low-level clouds in the region ( Shankar et al. 2007
to the warmer water in the east. The sea surface salinity (SSS; Fig. 1b ) is higher in the west than in the east ( Vinayachandran et al. 2013 ). Most remarkably, the western part of the southern BoB is marked by the intense monsoon current that flows into the BoB carrying higher-salinity Arabian Sea Water. The atmosphere above the cold pool is characterized by a minimum in seasonal total rainfall ( Fig. 1a ) and has the lowest amount of low-level clouds in the region ( Shankar et al. 2007
potentially related to climate change and are essential for diagnosing changes in the global water cycle. These include humidity, precipitation, P – E , and salinity. We also give recommendations that will lead to more robust predictions and identification of the human influence on recent observed changes. It is beyond the scope of this paper to provide a full review of water cycle changes or to discuss regional changes (see Collins et al. 2013 ; Sánchez-Lugo et al. 2014 ), changes in the biosphere
potentially related to climate change and are essential for diagnosing changes in the global water cycle. These include humidity, precipitation, P – E , and salinity. We also give recommendations that will lead to more robust predictions and identification of the human influence on recent observed changes. It is beyond the scope of this paper to provide a full review of water cycle changes or to discuss regional changes (see Collins et al. 2013 ; Sánchez-Lugo et al. 2014 ), changes in the biosphere
its first deployment during the Salinity Processes in the Upper Ocean Regional Study, second field phase (SPURS-2) project, carried out in late fall 2017 on board the R/V Roger Revelle . The SPURS-2 targeted convective systems and rainfall in the east Pacific intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ). We first describe the development of SEA-POL and installation and operation on the R/V Roger Revelle . Highlights from the cruise are then presented including polarimetric-based rain maps used to
its first deployment during the Salinity Processes in the Upper Ocean Regional Study, second field phase (SPURS-2) project, carried out in late fall 2017 on board the R/V Roger Revelle . The SPURS-2 targeted convective systems and rainfall in the east Pacific intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ). We first describe the development of SEA-POL and installation and operation on the R/V Roger Revelle . Highlights from the cruise are then presented including polarimetric-based rain maps used to
