1. Introduction The Kuroshio Extension (KE) jet, the western boundary current of the subtropical gyre in the North Pacific, transports warm water poleward and yields large heat release from the ocean to the atmosphere. The KE jet exhibits large fluctuations on interannual and decadal time scales (e.g., Deser et al. 1999 ; Schneider et al. 2002 ; Qiu and Chen 2005 ), so its variability has attracted much attention owing to its significant roles not only in the interior ocean structure of the
1. Introduction The Kuroshio Extension (KE) jet, the western boundary current of the subtropical gyre in the North Pacific, transports warm water poleward and yields large heat release from the ocean to the atmosphere. The KE jet exhibits large fluctuations on interannual and decadal time scales (e.g., Deser et al. 1999 ; Schneider et al. 2002 ; Qiu and Chen 2005 ), so its variability has attracted much attention owing to its significant roles not only in the interior ocean structure of the
Liu 1996 ). The observations indicated the presence of a low-level jet (LLJ) approximately 200 m above ground level (AGL) with increasing intensity toward the Transantarctic Mountains. The increased use of numerical simulations has provided more insight into the low-level wind field. Seefeldt et al. (2003) discuss the complex structure of the low-level wind field in the widely varying topography of the northwest Ross Ice Shelf. Numerical simulations of LLJs near the northern west coast of the
Liu 1996 ). The observations indicated the presence of a low-level jet (LLJ) approximately 200 m above ground level (AGL) with increasing intensity toward the Transantarctic Mountains. The increased use of numerical simulations has provided more insight into the low-level wind field. Seefeldt et al. (2003) discuss the complex structure of the low-level wind field in the widely varying topography of the northwest Ross Ice Shelf. Numerical simulations of LLJs near the northern west coast of the
1. Introduction Midlatitude jets are also called eddy-driven jets because they are maintained against surface drag by the convergence of momentum by eddies ( Vallis 2006 ). These eddies in turn develop in regions of strong baroclinicity, which tend to follow the jet position through thermal wind balance. The eddies and the jet are thus tightly coupled and how their interaction influences the variability of the jet is still not fully understood. The convergence of eddy momentum fluxes, herein
1. Introduction Midlatitude jets are also called eddy-driven jets because they are maintained against surface drag by the convergence of momentum by eddies ( Vallis 2006 ). These eddies in turn develop in regions of strong baroclinicity, which tend to follow the jet position through thermal wind balance. The eddies and the jet are thus tightly coupled and how their interaction influences the variability of the jet is still not fully understood. The convergence of eddy momentum fluxes, herein
1. Introduction The low-level flow from the Pacific Ocean interacts with the steep coastal terrain of Alaska to create strong (>25 m s −1 ) terrain-parallel winds ( Overland and Bond 1995 ; Loescher et al. 2006 ; Colle et al. 2006 ; Olson et al. 2007 ; among others) known as barrier jets ( Schwerdtfeger 1974 ; Overland and Bond 1993 , 1995 ). These jets can result in enhanced turbulence ( Smedman et al. 1995 ; Bond and Walter 2002 ) and wind stress forcing of local currents and storm
1. Introduction The low-level flow from the Pacific Ocean interacts with the steep coastal terrain of Alaska to create strong (>25 m s −1 ) terrain-parallel winds ( Overland and Bond 1995 ; Loescher et al. 2006 ; Colle et al. 2006 ; Olson et al. 2007 ; among others) known as barrier jets ( Schwerdtfeger 1974 ; Overland and Bond 1993 , 1995 ). These jets can result in enhanced turbulence ( Smedman et al. 1995 ; Bond and Walter 2002 ) and wind stress forcing of local currents and storm
2005 ; Keene and Schumacher 2013 ; Liu et al. 2018 ), and terrain effects ( Wang et al. 2014 ; Mulholland et al. 2019 ). In contrast, CI and UCG away from surface boundaries often occur during the night, and their mesoscale and small-scale features are poorly captured by numerical models ( Wilson and Roberts 2006 ; Davis et al. 2003 ). Nocturnal CI and UCG are typically associated with low-level jets ( Du and Chen 2019a ; Gebauer et al. 2018 ; Trier et al. 2017 ; Shapiro et al. 2018 ) and
2005 ; Keene and Schumacher 2013 ; Liu et al. 2018 ), and terrain effects ( Wang et al. 2014 ; Mulholland et al. 2019 ). In contrast, CI and UCG away from surface boundaries often occur during the night, and their mesoscale and small-scale features are poorly captured by numerical models ( Wilson and Roberts 2006 ; Davis et al. 2003 ). Nocturnal CI and UCG are typically associated with low-level jets ( Du and Chen 2019a ; Gebauer et al. 2018 ; Trier et al. 2017 ; Shapiro et al. 2018 ) and
1. Introduction The African easterly jet (AEJ) is one of the most complex and intriguing dynamical features in tropical meteorology. It raises a number of questions, ranging from its formation mechanism to its maintenance and from the causes of its intensity fluctuations to its role in generating weather systems. The AEJ is a crucial element in global-, synoptic-, and mesoscale dynamics, and its representation in models is important for climate modeling, seasonal predictions, and weather
1. Introduction The African easterly jet (AEJ) is one of the most complex and intriguing dynamical features in tropical meteorology. It raises a number of questions, ranging from its formation mechanism to its maintenance and from the causes of its intensity fluctuations to its role in generating weather systems. The AEJ is a crucial element in global-, synoptic-, and mesoscale dynamics, and its representation in models is important for climate modeling, seasonal predictions, and weather
1. Introduction Wind maxima in the lowest levels of the atmosphere have been an intensively studied meteorological phenomenon. Often referred to in the literature as low-level jets (LLJs), these wind maxima can occur as low as 90 m above ground ( Banta et al. 2002 ). Such LLJs can play a role in pollutant mixing and transport ( Zunckel et al. 1996 ; Banta et al. 1998 ; Darby et al. 2006 ; Bao et al. 2008 ; Klein et al. 2014 ) and can affect wind energy production ( Cosack et al. 2007
1. Introduction Wind maxima in the lowest levels of the atmosphere have been an intensively studied meteorological phenomenon. Often referred to in the literature as low-level jets (LLJs), these wind maxima can occur as low as 90 m above ground ( Banta et al. 2002 ). Such LLJs can play a role in pollutant mixing and transport ( Zunckel et al. 1996 ; Banta et al. 1998 ; Darby et al. 2006 ; Bao et al. 2008 ; Klein et al. 2014 ) and can affect wind energy production ( Cosack et al. 2007
1. Introduction Directly observed flow at the depths of the North Atlantic Deep Water in the South Atlantic Ocean shows a system of alternating zonal jets ( Hogg and Owens 1999 ). Deep zonal flow has been explained, for example, using a coarse wind-driven circulation model in the Pacific Ocean ( Nakano and Suginohara 2002 ). Several numerical models of varying resolution of the South Atlantic Ocean have been used to study the origin of the zonal flows, leading to the conclusion that wind is the
1. Introduction Directly observed flow at the depths of the North Atlantic Deep Water in the South Atlantic Ocean shows a system of alternating zonal jets ( Hogg and Owens 1999 ). Deep zonal flow has been explained, for example, using a coarse wind-driven circulation model in the Pacific Ocean ( Nakano and Suginohara 2002 ). Several numerical models of varying resolution of the South Atlantic Ocean have been used to study the origin of the zonal flows, leading to the conclusion that wind is the
1. Introduction Low-level jets (LLJs) are frequently observed phenomena in the nocturnal atmosphere in many parts of the world. They are characterized by a maximum in the wind speed profile, which is typically situated 100–500 m above the earth’s surface. In the literature, many studies can be found on the development and the characteristics of LLJs (e.g., Bonner 1968 ; Garratt 1985 ; Kraus et al. 1985 ; Whiteman et al. 1997 ; Andreas et al. 2000 ; Banta et al. 2002 ; Song et al. 2005
1. Introduction Low-level jets (LLJs) are frequently observed phenomena in the nocturnal atmosphere in many parts of the world. They are characterized by a maximum in the wind speed profile, which is typically situated 100–500 m above the earth’s surface. In the literature, many studies can be found on the development and the characteristics of LLJs (e.g., Bonner 1968 ; Garratt 1985 ; Kraus et al. 1985 ; Whiteman et al. 1997 ; Andreas et al. 2000 ; Banta et al. 2002 ; Song et al. 2005
1. Introduction a. Rationale The subtropical jet is a salient feature of the subtropical upper-level flow and a key player in the dynamical processes that link the tropics with the subtropics and the extratropics. Of central importance is the role that the subtropical jet (STJ) plays in governing Rossby wave dynamics. The STJ is coaligned with a band of strong potential vorticity (PV) gradients and therefore acts as a waveguide for synoptic-scale Rossby waves ( Hoskins and Ambrizzi 1993
1. Introduction a. Rationale The subtropical jet is a salient feature of the subtropical upper-level flow and a key player in the dynamical processes that link the tropics with the subtropics and the extratropics. Of central importance is the role that the subtropical jet (STJ) plays in governing Rossby wave dynamics. The STJ is coaligned with a band of strong potential vorticity (PV) gradients and therefore acts as a waveguide for synoptic-scale Rossby waves ( Hoskins and Ambrizzi 1993
