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Abstract
The daytime heat transfer mechanisms over mountainous terrain are investigated by means of large-eddy simulations over idealized valleys. Two- and three-dimensional topographies, corresponding to infinite and finite valleys, are used in order to evaluate the influence of the along-valley wind and the valley surroundings on the heat transfer processes. The atmosphere is coupled to an interactive land surface, allowing for dynamic feedback on the surface fluxes.
The valley heat budget is analyzed both from a local and bulk perspective, and the flow is Reynolds decomposed into its mean and turbulent component. The analysis clarifies recent issues of contention regarding the heating of the valley atmosphere. The flow decomposition allows one to clearly distinguish between the different heating processes: those associated with the mean flow, such as advection-induced cooling by the upslope flows and the warming induced by the compensating subsidence, and those associated with the turbulent motions. The latter include the warming of the mixed layer due to the convergence of the turbulent heat flux and cooling in the capping inversion due to overshooting thermals. The analysis from the bulk perspective confirms that the net effect of the thermally induced cross-valley circulation is to export heat out of the valley and away from the mountain ridge. The valley-volume effect is confirmed as the primary cause of enhanced diurnal temperature amplitudes in valleys. The results are robust with regard to the different topographies studied.
Abstract
The daytime heat transfer mechanisms over mountainous terrain are investigated by means of large-eddy simulations over idealized valleys. Two- and three-dimensional topographies, corresponding to infinite and finite valleys, are used in order to evaluate the influence of the along-valley wind and the valley surroundings on the heat transfer processes. The atmosphere is coupled to an interactive land surface, allowing for dynamic feedback on the surface fluxes.
The valley heat budget is analyzed both from a local and bulk perspective, and the flow is Reynolds decomposed into its mean and turbulent component. The analysis clarifies recent issues of contention regarding the heating of the valley atmosphere. The flow decomposition allows one to clearly distinguish between the different heating processes: those associated with the mean flow, such as advection-induced cooling by the upslope flows and the warming induced by the compensating subsidence, and those associated with the turbulent motions. The latter include the warming of the mixed layer due to the convergence of the turbulent heat flux and cooling in the capping inversion due to overshooting thermals. The analysis from the bulk perspective confirms that the net effect of the thermally induced cross-valley circulation is to export heat out of the valley and away from the mountain ridge. The valley-volume effect is confirmed as the primary cause of enhanced diurnal temperature amplitudes in valleys. The results are robust with regard to the different topographies studied.
Abstract
The purpose of this article is to introduce a new diagnostic measure of the time-integrated diabatic (thermal) forcing of a valley–plain system. This measure can be used to synchronize the evolution of thermally induced valley winds with respect to their forcing. Differences among numerical models or model configurations originating from diabatic forcing versus those originating from the model dynamics (e.g., turbulence scheme, dynamical core, etc.) can then be distinguished.
Abstract
The purpose of this article is to introduce a new diagnostic measure of the time-integrated diabatic (thermal) forcing of a valley–plain system. This measure can be used to synchronize the evolution of thermally induced valley winds with respect to their forcing. Differences among numerical models or model configurations originating from diabatic forcing versus those originating from the model dynamics (e.g., turbulence scheme, dynamical core, etc.) can then be distinguished.
Abstract
The physical mechanisms leading to the formation of diurnal along-valley winds are investigated over idealized three-dimensional topography. The topography used in this study consists of a valley with a horizontal floor enclosed by two isolated mountain ridges on a horizontal plain. A diagnostic equation for the along-valley pressure gradient is developed and used in combination with numerical model simulations to clarify the relative role of various forcing mechanisms such as the valley volume effect, subsidence heating, and surface sensible heat flux effects. The full diurnal cycle is simulated using comprehensive model physics including radiation transfer, land surface processes, and dynamic surface–atmosphere interactions. The authors find that the basic assumption of the valley volume argument of no heat exchange with the free atmosphere seldom holds. Typically, advective and turbulent heat transport reduce the heating of the valley during the day and the cooling of the valley during the night. In addition, dynamically induced valley–plain contrasts in the surface sensible heat flux can play an important role. Nevertheless, the present analysis confirms the importance of the valley volume effect for the formation of the diurnal along-valley winds but also clarifies the role of subsidence heating and the limitations of the valley volume effect argument. In summary, the analysis brings together different ideas of the valley wind into a unified picture.
Abstract
The physical mechanisms leading to the formation of diurnal along-valley winds are investigated over idealized three-dimensional topography. The topography used in this study consists of a valley with a horizontal floor enclosed by two isolated mountain ridges on a horizontal plain. A diagnostic equation for the along-valley pressure gradient is developed and used in combination with numerical model simulations to clarify the relative role of various forcing mechanisms such as the valley volume effect, subsidence heating, and surface sensible heat flux effects. The full diurnal cycle is simulated using comprehensive model physics including radiation transfer, land surface processes, and dynamic surface–atmosphere interactions. The authors find that the basic assumption of the valley volume argument of no heat exchange with the free atmosphere seldom holds. Typically, advective and turbulent heat transport reduce the heating of the valley during the day and the cooling of the valley during the night. In addition, dynamically induced valley–plain contrasts in the surface sensible heat flux can play an important role. Nevertheless, the present analysis confirms the importance of the valley volume effect for the formation of the diurnal along-valley winds but also clarifies the role of subsidence heating and the limitations of the valley volume effect argument. In summary, the analysis brings together different ideas of the valley wind into a unified picture.
Abstract
In a recent study, the authors investigated the mechanisms leading to the formation of diurnal along-valley winds in a valley formed by two isolated mountain ridges on a horizontal plain. The main focus was on the relation between the valley heat budget and the valley–plain pressure difference. The present work investigates the influence of the valley surroundings on the evolution of the valley winds. Three valley–plain configurations with identical valley volumes are studied: a periodic valley, an isolated valley on a plain (the former case), and an isolated valley entrenched in an elevated plateau. According to the valley volume argument (topographic amplification factor), these three cases should develop identical temperature perturbations and thus similar along-valley winds. However, substantial differences are found between the three cases, in particular a much stronger daytime up-valley wind and nighttime down-valley wind for the plateau configuration. The analysis demonstrates the importance of the exchange of along-valley momentum between the valley atmosphere and its surroundings and of the upper-level pressure gradient in explaining the differences among the cases. Furthermore, differences in the upper-level pressure gradient are shown to be related to the heat exchange of the air above the valley atmosphere with the surroundings, which is related to larger-scale cross-valley circulations.
Abstract
In a recent study, the authors investigated the mechanisms leading to the formation of diurnal along-valley winds in a valley formed by two isolated mountain ridges on a horizontal plain. The main focus was on the relation between the valley heat budget and the valley–plain pressure difference. The present work investigates the influence of the valley surroundings on the evolution of the valley winds. Three valley–plain configurations with identical valley volumes are studied: a periodic valley, an isolated valley on a plain (the former case), and an isolated valley entrenched in an elevated plateau. According to the valley volume argument (topographic amplification factor), these three cases should develop identical temperature perturbations and thus similar along-valley winds. However, substantial differences are found between the three cases, in particular a much stronger daytime up-valley wind and nighttime down-valley wind for the plateau configuration. The analysis demonstrates the importance of the exchange of along-valley momentum between the valley atmosphere and its surroundings and of the upper-level pressure gradient in explaining the differences among the cases. Furthermore, differences in the upper-level pressure gradient are shown to be related to the heat exchange of the air above the valley atmosphere with the surroundings, which is related to larger-scale cross-valley circulations.
Abstract
The explicit treatment of moist convection in cloud-resolving models with kilometer-scale horizontal resolution is increasingly used for atmospheric research and numerical weather prediction purposes. However, several previous studies have implicitly questioned the physical validity of this approach, as the accurate representation of the structure and evolution of moist convective phenomena requires considerably higher resolution. Unlike these studies, which focused on single convective systems, here the convergence of bulk properties of an ensemble of moist convective cells in kilometer-scale simulations is considered.
To address the convergence, the authors focus on the bulk net heating and moistening in a large control volume, the associated vertical fluxes, and the diurnal evolution of regionally averaged precipitation. Besides numerical convergence, “physical” convergence (Reynolds number increases with resolution) is addressed for two conceptually different subgrid-mixing approaches (1D mesoscale and 3D LES). Simulations are conducted for a 9-day period of diurnal summer convection over the Alps, using a large computational domain with grid spacings of 4.4, 2.2, 1.1, and 0.55 km and grid-independent topography.
Results show that for the model and episode considered, the simulated bulk properties and vertical fluxes converge numerically toward the 0.55-km solution. In terms of bulk effects, differences between the simulations are surprisingly small, even within the physical convergence framework that exhibits a sensitivity of the small-scale dynamics and ensuing convective structures to the horizontal resolution. Despite some sensitivities related to the applied turbulence closure, the results support the feasibility of kilometer-scale models to appropriately represent the bulk feedbacks between moist convection and the larger-scale flow.
Abstract
The explicit treatment of moist convection in cloud-resolving models with kilometer-scale horizontal resolution is increasingly used for atmospheric research and numerical weather prediction purposes. However, several previous studies have implicitly questioned the physical validity of this approach, as the accurate representation of the structure and evolution of moist convective phenomena requires considerably higher resolution. Unlike these studies, which focused on single convective systems, here the convergence of bulk properties of an ensemble of moist convective cells in kilometer-scale simulations is considered.
To address the convergence, the authors focus on the bulk net heating and moistening in a large control volume, the associated vertical fluxes, and the diurnal evolution of regionally averaged precipitation. Besides numerical convergence, “physical” convergence (Reynolds number increases with resolution) is addressed for two conceptually different subgrid-mixing approaches (1D mesoscale and 3D LES). Simulations are conducted for a 9-day period of diurnal summer convection over the Alps, using a large computational domain with grid spacings of 4.4, 2.2, 1.1, and 0.55 km and grid-independent topography.
Results show that for the model and episode considered, the simulated bulk properties and vertical fluxes converge numerically toward the 0.55-km solution. In terms of bulk effects, differences between the simulations are surprisingly small, even within the physical convergence framework that exhibits a sensitivity of the small-scale dynamics and ensuing convective structures to the horizontal resolution. Despite some sensitivities related to the applied turbulence closure, the results support the feasibility of kilometer-scale models to appropriately represent the bulk feedbacks between moist convection and the larger-scale flow.
Abstract
In convection-permitting simulations, the spectrum of resolved motions is truncated near scales where convection is active. An “energy gap” between resolved and unresolved motions does not exist, such that the upscale and downscale fluxes of energy across the spectrum are affected by the representation of turbulence as well as (implicit and explicit) numerical diffusion. In the current study, a systematic analysis is undertaken of the role of explicit numerical diffusion in simulations of diurnal convection over a large Alpine region, using the Consortium for Small Scale Modeling (COSMO) mesoscale model. Results are explored by using energy spectra and by diagnosing the physical and dynamical contributions to the bulk mesoscale heat budget. In addition, a linear analytical model is employed to assess different formulations of numerical diffusion.
Consistent with previous studies the authors find that diffusion may strongly affect the energy spectrum and the formation of precipitation. Besides the direct impact on convective intensity and cloud distribution, they demonstrate that diffusion has an upscale influence and ultimately affects the mesoscale dynamics. Diffusion reduces the bulk Alpine net heating on a scale of O(100 km). It is hypothesized that this upscale influence is primarily due to the following factor: multiple triggering of orographic convection over a complex mountain range leads to mountain-scale diurnal signals in vertical velocity that are sensitive even to scale-selective diffusion.
The simulations show that, in agreement with linear stability theory of convective growth, convective amplification is most sensitive to numerical diffusion of buoyancy and horizontal momentum components on near-surface model levels. If horizontal diffusion is not accomplished by a physically based parameterization and if the application of noise-reducing (e.g., monotonic) advection schemes proves to be insufficient to obviate the amplification of numerical noise, a necessary minimum of explicit diffusion is found to improve (i.e., decrease) the upscaling of energy to the mesoscale.
Abstract
In convection-permitting simulations, the spectrum of resolved motions is truncated near scales where convection is active. An “energy gap” between resolved and unresolved motions does not exist, such that the upscale and downscale fluxes of energy across the spectrum are affected by the representation of turbulence as well as (implicit and explicit) numerical diffusion. In the current study, a systematic analysis is undertaken of the role of explicit numerical diffusion in simulations of diurnal convection over a large Alpine region, using the Consortium for Small Scale Modeling (COSMO) mesoscale model. Results are explored by using energy spectra and by diagnosing the physical and dynamical contributions to the bulk mesoscale heat budget. In addition, a linear analytical model is employed to assess different formulations of numerical diffusion.
Consistent with previous studies the authors find that diffusion may strongly affect the energy spectrum and the formation of precipitation. Besides the direct impact on convective intensity and cloud distribution, they demonstrate that diffusion has an upscale influence and ultimately affects the mesoscale dynamics. Diffusion reduces the bulk Alpine net heating on a scale of O(100 km). It is hypothesized that this upscale influence is primarily due to the following factor: multiple triggering of orographic convection over a complex mountain range leads to mountain-scale diurnal signals in vertical velocity that are sensitive even to scale-selective diffusion.
The simulations show that, in agreement with linear stability theory of convective growth, convective amplification is most sensitive to numerical diffusion of buoyancy and horizontal momentum components on near-surface model levels. If horizontal diffusion is not accomplished by a physically based parameterization and if the application of noise-reducing (e.g., monotonic) advection schemes proves to be insufficient to obviate the amplification of numerical noise, a necessary minimum of explicit diffusion is found to improve (i.e., decrease) the upscaling of energy to the mesoscale.
Abstract
The importance of soil moisture anomalies on airmass convection over semiarid regions has been recognized in several studies. The underlying mechanisms remain partly unclear. An open question is why wetter soils can result in either an increase or a decrease of precipitation (positive or negative soil moisture–precipitation feedback, respectively). Here an idealized cloud-resolving modeling framework is used to explore the local soil moisture–precipitation feedback. The approach is able to replicate both positive and negative feedback loops, depending on the environmental parameters.
The mechanism relies on horizontal soil moisture variations, which may develop and intensify spontaneously. The positive expression of the feedback is associated with the initiation of convection over dry soil patches, but the convective cells then propagate over wet patches where they strengthen and preferentially precipitate. The negative feedback may occur when the wind profile is too weak to support the propagation of convective features from dry to wet areas. Precipitation is then generally weaker and falls preferentially over dry patches. The results highlight the role of the midtropospheric flow in determining the sign of the feedback. A key element of the positive feedback is the exploitation of both low convective inhibition (CIN) over dry patches (for the initiation of convection) and high CAPE over wet patches (for the generation of precipitation).
Abstract
The importance of soil moisture anomalies on airmass convection over semiarid regions has been recognized in several studies. The underlying mechanisms remain partly unclear. An open question is why wetter soils can result in either an increase or a decrease of precipitation (positive or negative soil moisture–precipitation feedback, respectively). Here an idealized cloud-resolving modeling framework is used to explore the local soil moisture–precipitation feedback. The approach is able to replicate both positive and negative feedback loops, depending on the environmental parameters.
The mechanism relies on horizontal soil moisture variations, which may develop and intensify spontaneously. The positive expression of the feedback is associated with the initiation of convection over dry soil patches, but the convective cells then propagate over wet patches where they strengthen and preferentially precipitate. The negative feedback may occur when the wind profile is too weak to support the propagation of convective features from dry to wet areas. Precipitation is then generally weaker and falls preferentially over dry patches. The results highlight the role of the midtropospheric flow in determining the sign of the feedback. A key element of the positive feedback is the exploitation of both low convective inhibition (CIN) over dry patches (for the initiation of convection) and high CAPE over wet patches (for the generation of precipitation).
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to validate the representation of topographic flows and moist convection over the European Alps in a convection-parameterizing simulation (CPM; Δx = 6.6 km) and two cloud-resolving simulations (CRM; Δx = 1.1 and 2.2 km). All simulations and further sensitivity experiments are validated against a large set of observations for an 18-day fair-weather summer period. The episode considered is characterized by pronounced plain–valley pressure gradients, strong daytime upvalley flows, and weak nighttime down-valley flows. In addition, convective precipitation is recorded during the late afternoon and is preceded by a phase of shallow convection. The observed transition from shallow to deep convection occurs within a 3-h period. The results indicate good agreement between both CRMs and the observed diurnal evolution in terms of near-surface winds, cloud formation, and precipitation. The differences between the two CRMs are surprisingly small. In contrast, the CPM produces too-early peaks of cloud cover and precipitation that are due to a too-early activation of deep convection. Detailed sensitivity experiments show that the convection scheme, rather than the underresolved small-scale topography, is responsible for the poor performance of the CPM. In addition, observations and simulations show that late-morning mass convergence does not correlate with afternoon precipitation. Rather, it is found that enhanced convective activity is related to increased conditional instability.
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to validate the representation of topographic flows and moist convection over the European Alps in a convection-parameterizing simulation (CPM; Δx = 6.6 km) and two cloud-resolving simulations (CRM; Δx = 1.1 and 2.2 km). All simulations and further sensitivity experiments are validated against a large set of observations for an 18-day fair-weather summer period. The episode considered is characterized by pronounced plain–valley pressure gradients, strong daytime upvalley flows, and weak nighttime down-valley flows. In addition, convective precipitation is recorded during the late afternoon and is preceded by a phase of shallow convection. The observed transition from shallow to deep convection occurs within a 3-h period. The results indicate good agreement between both CRMs and the observed diurnal evolution in terms of near-surface winds, cloud formation, and precipitation. The differences between the two CRMs are surprisingly small. In contrast, the CPM produces too-early peaks of cloud cover and precipitation that are due to a too-early activation of deep convection. Detailed sensitivity experiments show that the convection scheme, rather than the underresolved small-scale topography, is responsible for the poor performance of the CPM. In addition, observations and simulations show that late-morning mass convergence does not correlate with afternoon precipitation. Rather, it is found that enhanced convective activity is related to increased conditional instability.
Abstract
The dynamics that govern the evolution of nighttime flows in a deep valley, California’s Owens Valley, are analyzed. Measurements from the Terrain-Induced Rotor Experiment (T-REX) reveal a pronounced valley-wind system with often nonclassical flow evolution. Two cases with a weak high pressure ridge over the study area but very different valley flow evolution are presented. The first event is characterized by the appearance of a layer of southerly flow after midnight local time, sandwiched between a thermally driven low-level downvalley (northerly) flow and a synoptic northwesterly flow aloft. The second event is characterized by an unusually strong and deep downvalley jet, exceeding 15 m s−1. The analysis is based on the T-REX measurement data and the output of high-resolution large-eddy simulations using the Advanced Regional Prediction System (ARPS). Using horizontal grid spacings of 1 km and 350 m, ARPS reproduces the observed flow features for these two cases very well. It is found that the low-level along-valley forcing of the valley wind is the result of a superposition of the local thermal forcing and a midlevel (2–2.5 km MSL) along-valley pressure forcing. The analysis shows that the large difference in valley flow evolution derives primarily from differences in the midlevel pressure forcing, and that the Owens Valley is particularly susceptible to these midlevel external influences because of its specific geometry. The results demonstrate the delicate interplay of forces that can combine to determine the valley flow structure on any given night.
Abstract
The dynamics that govern the evolution of nighttime flows in a deep valley, California’s Owens Valley, are analyzed. Measurements from the Terrain-Induced Rotor Experiment (T-REX) reveal a pronounced valley-wind system with often nonclassical flow evolution. Two cases with a weak high pressure ridge over the study area but very different valley flow evolution are presented. The first event is characterized by the appearance of a layer of southerly flow after midnight local time, sandwiched between a thermally driven low-level downvalley (northerly) flow and a synoptic northwesterly flow aloft. The second event is characterized by an unusually strong and deep downvalley jet, exceeding 15 m s−1. The analysis is based on the T-REX measurement data and the output of high-resolution large-eddy simulations using the Advanced Regional Prediction System (ARPS). Using horizontal grid spacings of 1 km and 350 m, ARPS reproduces the observed flow features for these two cases very well. It is found that the low-level along-valley forcing of the valley wind is the result of a superposition of the local thermal forcing and a midlevel (2–2.5 km MSL) along-valley pressure forcing. The analysis shows that the large difference in valley flow evolution derives primarily from differences in the midlevel pressure forcing, and that the Owens Valley is particularly susceptible to these midlevel external influences because of its specific geometry. The results demonstrate the delicate interplay of forces that can combine to determine the valley flow structure on any given night.
Abstract
A new turbulence scheme with two prognostic energies is presented. The scheme is an extension of a turbulence kinetic energy (TKE) scheme following the ideas of Zilitinkevich et al. but valid for the whole stability range and including the influence of moisture. The second turbulence prognostic energy is used only for a modification of the stability parameter. Thus, the scheme is downgradient, and the turbulent fluxes are proportional to the local gradients of the diffused variables. However, the stability parameter and consequently the turbulent exchange coefficients are not strictly local anymore and have a prognostic character. The authors believe that these characteristics enable the scheme to model both turbulence and clouds in the planetary boundary layer. The two-energy scheme was tested in three idealized single-column model (SCM) simulations, two in the convective boundary layer and one in the stable boundary layer. Overall, the scheme performs better than the standard TKE schemes. Compared to the TKE schemes, the two-energy scheme shows a more continuous behavior in time and space and mixes deeper in accordance with the LES results. A drawback of the scheme is that the modeled thermals tend to be too intense and too infrequent. This is due to the particular cutoff formulation of the chosen length-scale parameterization. Long-term three-dimensional global simulations show that the turbulence scheme behaves reasonable well in a full atmospheric model. In agreement with the SCM simulations, the scheme tends to overestimate cloud cover, especially at low levels.
Abstract
A new turbulence scheme with two prognostic energies is presented. The scheme is an extension of a turbulence kinetic energy (TKE) scheme following the ideas of Zilitinkevich et al. but valid for the whole stability range and including the influence of moisture. The second turbulence prognostic energy is used only for a modification of the stability parameter. Thus, the scheme is downgradient, and the turbulent fluxes are proportional to the local gradients of the diffused variables. However, the stability parameter and consequently the turbulent exchange coefficients are not strictly local anymore and have a prognostic character. The authors believe that these characteristics enable the scheme to model both turbulence and clouds in the planetary boundary layer. The two-energy scheme was tested in three idealized single-column model (SCM) simulations, two in the convective boundary layer and one in the stable boundary layer. Overall, the scheme performs better than the standard TKE schemes. Compared to the TKE schemes, the two-energy scheme shows a more continuous behavior in time and space and mixes deeper in accordance with the LES results. A drawback of the scheme is that the modeled thermals tend to be too intense and too infrequent. This is due to the particular cutoff formulation of the chosen length-scale parameterization. Long-term three-dimensional global simulations show that the turbulence scheme behaves reasonable well in a full atmospheric model. In agreement with the SCM simulations, the scheme tends to overestimate cloud cover, especially at low levels.
