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- Author or Editor: Albert A.M. Holtslag x
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Abstract
Covariances and fluxes of reactive species in the clear convective atmospheric boundary layer (CABL) are studied and parameterized. The covariances result from correlations between reactive species. These covariances may have a considerable influence on the modeled reaction rates in atmospheric chemistry models, but usually are neglected. To facilitate the representation of covariance effects in large-scale atmospheric chemistry models, the authors have developed a new first-order closure for covariances. The closure is based on top-hat distributions, as is common in mass-flux schemes. In addition, the authors utilize an existing nonlocal first-order closure expression for the flux, which represents the combined effects of gradient mixing and nonlocal convective mixing. The authors show how the latter also includes the impact of chemistry on the nonlocal flux contribution. The impact of the closures is illustrated first for artificial, simple chemistry cases. The results are evaluated using large-eddy simulation (LES). By comparing results for the entraining and solid-lid CABL it is established that the covariance closure works satisfactorily away from the inversion. Subsequently, the closures are evaluated against LES for a photochemical case with 10 reactions involving six modeled species. The accuracy of the modeled covariances is found to be within a factor of 2, which is sufficient to improve the modeled concentrations.
Abstract
Covariances and fluxes of reactive species in the clear convective atmospheric boundary layer (CABL) are studied and parameterized. The covariances result from correlations between reactive species. These covariances may have a considerable influence on the modeled reaction rates in atmospheric chemistry models, but usually are neglected. To facilitate the representation of covariance effects in large-scale atmospheric chemistry models, the authors have developed a new first-order closure for covariances. The closure is based on top-hat distributions, as is common in mass-flux schemes. In addition, the authors utilize an existing nonlocal first-order closure expression for the flux, which represents the combined effects of gradient mixing and nonlocal convective mixing. The authors show how the latter also includes the impact of chemistry on the nonlocal flux contribution. The impact of the closures is illustrated first for artificial, simple chemistry cases. The results are evaluated using large-eddy simulation (LES). By comparing results for the entraining and solid-lid CABL it is established that the covariance closure works satisfactorily away from the inversion. Subsequently, the closures are evaluated against LES for a photochemical case with 10 reactions involving six modeled species. The accuracy of the modeled covariances is found to be within a factor of 2, which is sufficient to improve the modeled concentrations.
Abstract
In this paper the construction of real-time integrated water vapor (IWV) maps from a surface network of global positioning system (GPS) receivers is presented. The IWV maps are constructed using a two-dimensional variational technique with a persistence background that is 15 min old. The background error covariances are determined using a novel two-step method, which is based on the Hollingsworth–Lonnberg method. The quality of these maps is assessed by comparison with radiosonde observations and IWV maps from a numerical weather prediction (NWP) model. The analyzed GPS IWV maps have no bias against radiosonde observations and a small bias against NWP analysis and forecasts up to 9 h. The standard deviation with radiosonde observations is around 2 kg m−2, and the standard deviation with NWP increases with increasing forecast length (from 2 kg m−2 for the NWP analysis to 4 kg m−2 for a forecast length of 48 h). To illustrate the additional value of these real-time products for nowcasting, three thunderstorm cases are discussed. The constructed GPS IWV maps are combined with data from the weather radar, a lightning detection network, and surface wind observations. All cases show that the location of developing thunderstorms can be identified 2 h prior to initiation in the convergence of moist air.
Abstract
In this paper the construction of real-time integrated water vapor (IWV) maps from a surface network of global positioning system (GPS) receivers is presented. The IWV maps are constructed using a two-dimensional variational technique with a persistence background that is 15 min old. The background error covariances are determined using a novel two-step method, which is based on the Hollingsworth–Lonnberg method. The quality of these maps is assessed by comparison with radiosonde observations and IWV maps from a numerical weather prediction (NWP) model. The analyzed GPS IWV maps have no bias against radiosonde observations and a small bias against NWP analysis and forecasts up to 9 h. The standard deviation with radiosonde observations is around 2 kg m−2, and the standard deviation with NWP increases with increasing forecast length (from 2 kg m−2 for the NWP analysis to 4 kg m−2 for a forecast length of 48 h). To illustrate the additional value of these real-time products for nowcasting, three thunderstorm cases are discussed. The constructed GPS IWV maps are combined with data from the weather radar, a lightning detection network, and surface wind observations. All cases show that the location of developing thunderstorms can be identified 2 h prior to initiation in the convergence of moist air.
Abstract
The onset of moist convection over land is investigated using a conceptual approach with a slab boundary layer model. The authors determine the essential factors for the onset of boundary layer clouds over land and study their relative importance. They are 1) the ratio of the temperature to the moisture lapse rates of the free troposphere, that is, the inversion Bowen ratio; 2) the mean daily surface temperature; 3) the relative humidity of the free troposphere; and 4) the surface evaporative fraction. A clear transition is observed between two regimes of moistening of the boundary layer as assessed by the relative humidity at the boundary layer top. In the first so-called wet soil advantage regime, the moistening results from the increase of the mixed-layer specific humidity, which linearly depends on the surface evaporative fraction and inversion Bowen ratio through a dynamic boundary layer factor. In the second so-called dry soil advantage regime, the relative humidity tendency at the boundary layer top is controlled by the thermodynamics and changes in the moist adiabatic induced by the decreased temperature at the boundary layer top and consequent reduction in saturation water vapor pressure. This regime pertains to very deep boundary layers under weakly stratified free troposphere over hot surface conditions. In the context of the conceptual model, a rise in free-tropospheric temperature (global warming) increases the occurrence of deep convection and reduces the cloud cover over moist surfaces. This study provides new intuition and predictive capacity on the mechanism controlling the occurrence of moist convection over land.
Abstract
The onset of moist convection over land is investigated using a conceptual approach with a slab boundary layer model. The authors determine the essential factors for the onset of boundary layer clouds over land and study their relative importance. They are 1) the ratio of the temperature to the moisture lapse rates of the free troposphere, that is, the inversion Bowen ratio; 2) the mean daily surface temperature; 3) the relative humidity of the free troposphere; and 4) the surface evaporative fraction. A clear transition is observed between two regimes of moistening of the boundary layer as assessed by the relative humidity at the boundary layer top. In the first so-called wet soil advantage regime, the moistening results from the increase of the mixed-layer specific humidity, which linearly depends on the surface evaporative fraction and inversion Bowen ratio through a dynamic boundary layer factor. In the second so-called dry soil advantage regime, the relative humidity tendency at the boundary layer top is controlled by the thermodynamics and changes in the moist adiabatic induced by the decreased temperature at the boundary layer top and consequent reduction in saturation water vapor pressure. This regime pertains to very deep boundary layers under weakly stratified free troposphere over hot surface conditions. In the context of the conceptual model, a rise in free-tropospheric temperature (global warming) increases the occurrence of deep convection and reduces the cloud cover over moist surfaces. This study provides new intuition and predictive capacity on the mechanism controlling the occurrence of moist convection over land.
Abstract
Observations from the European Field Experiment in a Desertification-threatened Area (EFEDA) are used to evaluate the performance of the radiation, land surface, and boundary layer description of the numerical weather prediction (NWP) system High-Resolution Limited Area Model (HIRLAM) in semiarid conditions. Model analysis and 6-h forecast data of the fully coupled three-dimensional model are compared with the comprehensive dataset of a case study representing a sample of 22 days of anticyclonic conditions. Distributed micrometeorological surface stations, radiosondes, flux aircraft, and airborne lidar provide a unique validation dataset of the diurnal cycle of surface and boundary layer processes.
The model surface, soil, and boundary layer are found to be too moist and slightly too cold during most of the diurnal cycle. The model radiation and surface energy budgets are biased toward more humid conditions.
Model shortcomings are identified essentially in four areas. These are the moisture data assimilation, the land-use and soil classification with its associated physiographic database, the aerosol parameterization in the radiation code, and the boundary layer vertical resolution and entrainment description.
Practical steps for immediate improvement of the model performance are proposed. They focus on the use of a land-use and soil classification and physiographic database adapted to Mediterranean landscapes, in combination with the inclusion of aerosol parameters in the radiation scheme, that account for the typically higher aerosol load of arid and semiarid environments.
Abstract
Observations from the European Field Experiment in a Desertification-threatened Area (EFEDA) are used to evaluate the performance of the radiation, land surface, and boundary layer description of the numerical weather prediction (NWP) system High-Resolution Limited Area Model (HIRLAM) in semiarid conditions. Model analysis and 6-h forecast data of the fully coupled three-dimensional model are compared with the comprehensive dataset of a case study representing a sample of 22 days of anticyclonic conditions. Distributed micrometeorological surface stations, radiosondes, flux aircraft, and airborne lidar provide a unique validation dataset of the diurnal cycle of surface and boundary layer processes.
The model surface, soil, and boundary layer are found to be too moist and slightly too cold during most of the diurnal cycle. The model radiation and surface energy budgets are biased toward more humid conditions.
Model shortcomings are identified essentially in four areas. These are the moisture data assimilation, the land-use and soil classification with its associated physiographic database, the aerosol parameterization in the radiation code, and the boundary layer vertical resolution and entrainment description.
Practical steps for immediate improvement of the model performance are proposed. They focus on the use of a land-use and soil classification and physiographic database adapted to Mediterranean landscapes, in combination with the inclusion of aerosol parameters in the radiation scheme, that account for the typically higher aerosol load of arid and semiarid environments.
Abstract
By means of finescale modeling [large-eddy simulation (LES)], the combined effect of thermal and mechanical forcing on the dispersion of a plume in a convective boundary layer is investigated. Dispersion of a passive tracer is studied in various atmospheric turbulent flows, from pure convective to almost neutral, classified according to the scaling parameters u∗/w∗ and −z i /L. The LES results for the flow statistics and dispersion characteristics are first validated for pure convective cases against the available results from laboratory and field experiments. Currently used parameterizations are evaluated with the model results. The effect of wind shear is studied by analyzing the dynamic variables, in particular the velocity variances, and their relation with the dispersion characteristics, specifically plume mean height, dispersion parameters, ground concentrations, and concentration fluctuations. The main effect of the wind shear results in a reduction of the vertical spread and an enhancement of the horizontal dispersion. This effect greatly influences the behavior of the ground concentrations because the tracer is transported by the wind for a longer time before reaching the ground. The vertical dispersion parameter is studied by discussing the two main components: meandering and relative diffusion. Results show that the increasing wind reduces the plume vertical motion. The influence of increasing wind shear on the concentration fluctuation intensity is also analyzed. The limited plume vertical looping in conditions of weak convection results in reduction of the concentration fluctuation intensity. Parameterizations for the dispersion parameters are derived as a function of the flow characteristics, namely, the shear–buoyancy ratio, velocity variances, and wind shear. The parameterizations are partially based on previous studies and are verified for the different buoyancy- and shear-driven flows, showing satisfactory agreement with the model results.
Abstract
By means of finescale modeling [large-eddy simulation (LES)], the combined effect of thermal and mechanical forcing on the dispersion of a plume in a convective boundary layer is investigated. Dispersion of a passive tracer is studied in various atmospheric turbulent flows, from pure convective to almost neutral, classified according to the scaling parameters u∗/w∗ and −z i /L. The LES results for the flow statistics and dispersion characteristics are first validated for pure convective cases against the available results from laboratory and field experiments. Currently used parameterizations are evaluated with the model results. The effect of wind shear is studied by analyzing the dynamic variables, in particular the velocity variances, and their relation with the dispersion characteristics, specifically plume mean height, dispersion parameters, ground concentrations, and concentration fluctuations. The main effect of the wind shear results in a reduction of the vertical spread and an enhancement of the horizontal dispersion. This effect greatly influences the behavior of the ground concentrations because the tracer is transported by the wind for a longer time before reaching the ground. The vertical dispersion parameter is studied by discussing the two main components: meandering and relative diffusion. Results show that the increasing wind reduces the plume vertical motion. The influence of increasing wind shear on the concentration fluctuation intensity is also analyzed. The limited plume vertical looping in conditions of weak convection results in reduction of the concentration fluctuation intensity. Parameterizations for the dispersion parameters are derived as a function of the flow characteristics, namely, the shear–buoyancy ratio, velocity variances, and wind shear. The parameterizations are partially based on previous studies and are verified for the different buoyancy- and shear-driven flows, showing satisfactory agreement with the model results.
Abstract
Eulerian and Lagrangian statistics in the atmospheric convective boundary layer (CBL) are studied by means of large eddy simulation (LES). Spectra analysis is performed in both the Eulerian and Lagrangian frameworks, autocorrelations are calculated, and the integral length and time scales are derived. Eulerian statistics are calculated by means of spatial and temporal analysis in order to derive characteristic length and time scales. Taylor’s hypothesis of frozen turbulence is investigated, and it is found to be satisfied in the simulated flow.
Lagrangian statistics are derived by tracking the trajectories of numerous particles released at different heights in the turbulent flow. The relationship between Lagrangian properties (autocorrelation functions) and dispersion characteristics (particles’ displacement) is studied through Taylor’s diffusion relationship, with special emphasis on the difference between horizontal and vertical motion. Results show that for the horizontal motion, Taylor’s relationship is satisfied. The vertical motion, however, is influenced by the inhomogeneity of the flow and limited by the ground and the capping inversion at the top of the CBL. The Lagrangian autocorrelation function, therefore, does not have an exponential shape, and consequently, the integral time scale is zero. If distinction is made between free and bounded motion, a better agreement between Taylor’s relationship and the particles’ vertical displacement is found.
Relationships between Eulerian and Lagrangian frameworks are analyzed by calculating the ratio β between Lagrangian and Eulerian time scales. Results show that the integral time scales are mainly constant with height for z/zi < 0.7. In the upper part of the CBL, the capping inversion transforms vertical motion into horizontal motion. As a result, the horizontal time scale increases with height, whereas the vertical one is reduced. Current parameterizations for the ratio between the Eulerian and Lagrangian time scales have been tested against the LES results showing satisfactory agreement at heights z/zi < 0.7.
Abstract
Eulerian and Lagrangian statistics in the atmospheric convective boundary layer (CBL) are studied by means of large eddy simulation (LES). Spectra analysis is performed in both the Eulerian and Lagrangian frameworks, autocorrelations are calculated, and the integral length and time scales are derived. Eulerian statistics are calculated by means of spatial and temporal analysis in order to derive characteristic length and time scales. Taylor’s hypothesis of frozen turbulence is investigated, and it is found to be satisfied in the simulated flow.
Lagrangian statistics are derived by tracking the trajectories of numerous particles released at different heights in the turbulent flow. The relationship between Lagrangian properties (autocorrelation functions) and dispersion characteristics (particles’ displacement) is studied through Taylor’s diffusion relationship, with special emphasis on the difference between horizontal and vertical motion. Results show that for the horizontal motion, Taylor’s relationship is satisfied. The vertical motion, however, is influenced by the inhomogeneity of the flow and limited by the ground and the capping inversion at the top of the CBL. The Lagrangian autocorrelation function, therefore, does not have an exponential shape, and consequently, the integral time scale is zero. If distinction is made between free and bounded motion, a better agreement between Taylor’s relationship and the particles’ vertical displacement is found.
Relationships between Eulerian and Lagrangian frameworks are analyzed by calculating the ratio β between Lagrangian and Eulerian time scales. Results show that the integral time scales are mainly constant with height for z/zi < 0.7. In the upper part of the CBL, the capping inversion transforms vertical motion into horizontal motion. As a result, the horizontal time scale increases with height, whereas the vertical one is reduced. Current parameterizations for the ratio between the Eulerian and Lagrangian time scales have been tested against the LES results showing satisfactory agreement at heights z/zi < 0.7.
Abstract
We report about a new third-party observation, namely, wind measurements derived from hot-air balloon (HAB) tracks. We first compare the HAB winds with wind measurements from a meteorological tower and a radio acoustic wind profiler, both situated at the topographically flat observatory near Cabauw, the Netherlands. To explore the potential of this new type of wind observation in other topographies, we present an intriguing HAB flight in Austria with a spectacular mountain–valley circulation. Subsequently, we compare the HAB data with a numerical weather prediction (NWP) model during 2011–13 and the standard deviation of the wind speed is 2.3 m s−1. Finally, we show results from a data assimilation feasibility experiment that reveals that HAB wind information can have a positive impact on a hindcasted NWP trajectory.
Abstract
We report about a new third-party observation, namely, wind measurements derived from hot-air balloon (HAB) tracks. We first compare the HAB winds with wind measurements from a meteorological tower and a radio acoustic wind profiler, both situated at the topographically flat observatory near Cabauw, the Netherlands. To explore the potential of this new type of wind observation in other topographies, we present an intriguing HAB flight in Austria with a spectacular mountain–valley circulation. Subsequently, we compare the HAB data with a numerical weather prediction (NWP) model during 2011–13 and the standard deviation of the wind speed is 2.3 m s−1. Finally, we show results from a data assimilation feasibility experiment that reveals that HAB wind information can have a positive impact on a hindcasted NWP trajectory.
Abstract
The development of a simple and low-cost portable weighing microlysimeter that makes use of a load cell for automated recording and for studying daily dew formation, rate of accumulation, and subsequent evaporation in arid or semiarid regions during rainless seasons is presented. The sampling cup is 3.5 cm deep, with the load cell itself situated at 20-cm depth to minimize temperature effects. The device was tested in a sand dune experimental station situated near Nizzana, northwest Negev Desert, Israel, during which extensive micrometeorological measurements were collected. One microlysimeter was placed in a playa and a second was installed on the stabilized midslope of an adjacent linear sand dune. To assess the performance of the load cell microlysimeters (LCM), one pair of manual microlysimeters was installed next to each LCM. A third pair was installed at a point between the LCMs and a fourth pair above the midslope LCM. Sixteen overnight measurements were carried out within a 6-week period. The LCM could measure dew with an error of ±0.02 mm. The daily dew variation in the samples during the 16 overnight measurements ranged up to 0.2 mm on stable dune slopes but up to 0.4 mm on the playa. This difference is attributed to the playa’s high silt and clay content and salinity. Dew formation and accumulation were found to occur long before the soil-surface temperature reached the dewpoint temperature of the air. The cost of building this microlysimeter, excluding labor, is about $175 (U.S.).
Abstract
The development of a simple and low-cost portable weighing microlysimeter that makes use of a load cell for automated recording and for studying daily dew formation, rate of accumulation, and subsequent evaporation in arid or semiarid regions during rainless seasons is presented. The sampling cup is 3.5 cm deep, with the load cell itself situated at 20-cm depth to minimize temperature effects. The device was tested in a sand dune experimental station situated near Nizzana, northwest Negev Desert, Israel, during which extensive micrometeorological measurements were collected. One microlysimeter was placed in a playa and a second was installed on the stabilized midslope of an adjacent linear sand dune. To assess the performance of the load cell microlysimeters (LCM), one pair of manual microlysimeters was installed next to each LCM. A third pair was installed at a point between the LCMs and a fourth pair above the midslope LCM. Sixteen overnight measurements were carried out within a 6-week period. The LCM could measure dew with an error of ±0.02 mm. The daily dew variation in the samples during the 16 overnight measurements ranged up to 0.2 mm on stable dune slopes but up to 0.4 mm on the playa. This difference is attributed to the playa’s high silt and clay content and salinity. Dew formation and accumulation were found to occur long before the soil-surface temperature reached the dewpoint temperature of the air. The cost of building this microlysimeter, excluding labor, is about $175 (U.S.).
Abstract
The European Field Experiment in a Desertification-Threatened Area (EFEDA) provides a comprehensive land surface dataset for a semiarid Mediterranean environment with natural vegetation and cultivated dry and irrigated land. This paper discusses the methods and practical aspects of deriving area-averaged fluxes for a range of areas from the whole EFEDA region to several numerical weather prediction model grid cells (on 10–100-km scales). A time series of grid-scale surface fluxes for the entire observational period of 1 month was obtained from weighted surface averages, using a crop phenology–based land use classification together with a homogenized set of surface observations representative of the four major vegetation classes. The flux-aggregated surface observations were compared with two other approaches to obtain grid-scale fluxes (airborne flux observations and radiosondes in conjunction with a simple mixed-layer model). The area-aggregated fluxes (in particular of latent heat) depend strongly on the location of the area boundaries whenever a significant fraction of irrigated land is present. This result confirms clearly the importance of adequately accounting for tiles of irrigated land in surface schemes and corresponding physiographic databases of large-scale models. A simple way to accommodate for minimum information on the canopy water status is proposed in terms of the distinction of at least two seasonal classes of irrigated crops—one of spring and one of summer growing cycles. The main lesson from this aggregation exercise concerns the role of irrigation. First, this study quantifies the uncertainties in the space–time pattern and its effects on aggregated surface fluxes for the first time on the grounds of observational data. Second, it demonstrates practical ways to accomplish the parameterization of irrigation in flux aggregation schemes, by identifying the key data along with their possible sources and by defining a practical implementation procedure.
Abstract
The European Field Experiment in a Desertification-Threatened Area (EFEDA) provides a comprehensive land surface dataset for a semiarid Mediterranean environment with natural vegetation and cultivated dry and irrigated land. This paper discusses the methods and practical aspects of deriving area-averaged fluxes for a range of areas from the whole EFEDA region to several numerical weather prediction model grid cells (on 10–100-km scales). A time series of grid-scale surface fluxes for the entire observational period of 1 month was obtained from weighted surface averages, using a crop phenology–based land use classification together with a homogenized set of surface observations representative of the four major vegetation classes. The flux-aggregated surface observations were compared with two other approaches to obtain grid-scale fluxes (airborne flux observations and radiosondes in conjunction with a simple mixed-layer model). The area-aggregated fluxes (in particular of latent heat) depend strongly on the location of the area boundaries whenever a significant fraction of irrigated land is present. This result confirms clearly the importance of adequately accounting for tiles of irrigated land in surface schemes and corresponding physiographic databases of large-scale models. A simple way to accommodate for minimum information on the canopy water status is proposed in terms of the distinction of at least two seasonal classes of irrigated crops—one of spring and one of summer growing cycles. The main lesson from this aggregation exercise concerns the role of irrigation. First, this study quantifies the uncertainties in the space–time pattern and its effects on aggregated surface fluxes for the first time on the grounds of observational data. Second, it demonstrates practical ways to accomplish the parameterization of irrigation in flux aggregation schemes, by identifying the key data along with their possible sources and by defining a practical implementation procedure.
