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K. I. Hodges
and
C. D. Thorncroft

Abstract

This paper provides for the first time an objective short-term (8 yr) climatology of African convective weather systems based on satellite imagery. Eight years of infrared International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project–European Space Agency’s Meteorological Satellite (ISCCP–Meteosat) satellite imagery has been analyzed using objective feature identification, tracking, and statistical techniques for the July, August, and September periods and the region of Africa and the adjacent Atlantic ocean. This allows various diagnostics to be computed and used to study the distribution of mesoscale and synoptic-scale convective weather systems from mesoscale cloud clusters and squall lines to tropical cyclones. An 8-yr seasonal climatology (1983–90) and the seasonal cycle of this convective activity are presented and discussed. Also discussed is the dependence of organized convection for this region, on the orography, convective, and potential instability and vertical wind shear using European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts reanalysis data.

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C. D. Thorncroft
and
H. A. Flocas

Abstract

A case of Saharan cyclogenesis associated with the equatorward intrusion of a trough at the end of the Atlantic storm track is investigated. It is shown that a potential vorticity anomaly resulting from a baroclinic wave life cycle associated with the polar jet interacts with the low-level baroclinicity over subtropical Africa beneath the subtropical jet. It is suggested that low-latitude synoptic-scale cyclogenesis events of this type can be triggered only by upper-level potential vorticity anomalies if they have a sufficient depth scale and that the interaction may be aided by the presence of low static stability associated with a well-mixed boundary layer. A weak cold front also forms during the cyclogenesis event associated with the convergence of the baroclinicity of the polar trough front with the baroclinicity of the subtropical heat low.

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C. D. Thorncroft
and
M. Haile

Abstract

Dynamic and thermodynamic fields from ECMWF analyses have been presented for the tropical north African region for July 1989. Except for the region equatorward of 10°N, it has been shown that the pattern of mean low-level θ e has a striking correspondence with the propagating storm statistics obtained from Meteosat in that region, with mean high θ e corresponding to more propagating storm activity, and vice versa. Considerable correspondence is also found with the cold cloud duration pattern and observed rainfall.

The low-level θ e pattern poleward of 13°N has been shown to be strongly influenced by the low-level meridional wind v. The v = 0 contour at low levels, for example, has been shown to have a marked northwest-to-southeast tilt between about the zero meridian and 25°E. Superimposed on this is a marked sinusoidal variation in the latitudinal position of the contour associated with the orography in this region. The low-level θ e pattern is consistent with these variations with higher values of θ e associated with southerlies and lower values with northerlies. Especially low θ e values found around 25°E appear to be associated with low-level northerlies emanating from a region of descent in the eastern Mediteranean.

A comparison of ECMWF-analyzed mean vertical velocity at 500 mb. a measure of mean model diabatic heating, with satellite-derived variables and rainfall indicates two 1ocations of significant model discrepancy: a region of ascent close to the Air Mountains that was not consistent with observations and a region near the Dafur Mountains with no significant ascent but where the observations indicate the opposite.

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C. D. Thorncroft
and
B. J. Hoskins

Abstract

A dry baroclinic spectral model is used to study the initation of frontal cyclones in a baroclinic life cycle. The mature cyclone exhibits a frontal cyclone development associated with a finite amplitude interaction between an upper tropospheric potential vorticity (PV) cut off and a surface cold front. In comparison, a linear stability study of the front identifies only weakly growing modes at the 1000–2000 km wavelength, although with a latent heat release parameterization included in ascending regions, the baroclinic modes are considerably destabilized. It is found that the cold front in the growing baroclinic wave is in fact stabilized by the deformation present in the frontal region, an aspect neglected in studies of small amplitude perturbations to steady basic states. However, it is proposed that small scale waves often observed on the cold front baroclinicity near the warm front and seen in the life cycle experiments are the result of linear upstream development initiated by the wrap-up of low-level isotherms.

The main source of upper tropospheric PV anomalies in the atmosphere is provided by the large scale baroclinic waves which advect stratospheric air down sloping isentropes toward the surface and equator. The meridional shear present in the basic state strongly determines the nonlinear evolution of the trough, the PV advection in it, and thus the frontal cyclone developments.

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Man-Li C. Wu
,
Oreste Reale
,
Siegfried D. Schubert
,
Max J. Suarez
, and
Chris D. Thorncroft

Abstract

This study investigates the structure of the African easterly jet, focusing on instability processes on a seasonal and subseasonal scale, with the goal of identifying features that could provide increased predictability of Atlantic tropical cyclogenesis. The Modern-Era Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications (MERRA) is used as the main investigating tool. MERRA is compared with other reanalyses datasets from major operational centers around the world and was found to describe very effectively the circulation over the African monsoon region. In particular, a comparison with precipitation datasets from the Global Precipitation Climatology Project shows that MERRA realistically reproduces seasonal precipitation over that region. The verification of the generalized Kuo barotropic instability condition computed from seasonal means is found to have the interesting property of defining well the location where observed tropical storms are detected. This property does not appear to be an artifact of MERRA and is present also in the other adopted reanalysis datasets. Therefore, the fact that the areas where the mean flow is unstable seems to provide a more favorable environment for wave intensification, could be another factor to include—in addition to sea surface temperature, vertical shear, precipitation, the role of Saharan air, and others—among large-scale forcings affecting development and tropical cyclone frequency. In addition, two prominent modes of variability are found based on a spectral analysis that uses the Hilbert–Huang transform: a 2.5–6-day mode that corresponds well to the African easterly waves and also a 6–9-day mode that seems to be associated with tropical–extratropical interaction.

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Bhupal Shrestha
,
J. A. Brotzge
,
J. Wang
,
N. Bain
,
C. D. Thorncroft
,
E. Joseph
,
J. Freedman
, and
S. Perez

Abstract

Vertical profiles of atmospheric temperature, moisture, wind, and aerosols are essential information for weather monitoring and prediction. Their availability, however, is limited in space and time because of the significant resources required to observe them. To fill this gap, the New York State Mesonet (NYSM) Profiler Network has been deployed as a national testbed to facilitate the research, development, and evaluation of ground-based profiling technologies and applications. The testbed comprises 17 profiler stations across the state, forming a long-term regional observational network. Each profiler station comprises a ground-based Doppler lidar, a microwave radiometer (MWR), and an environmental Sky Imager–Radiometer (eSIR). Thermodynamic profiles (temperature and humidity) from the MWR, wind and aerosol profiles from the Doppler lidar, and solar radiance and optical depth parameters from the eSIR are collected, processed, disseminated, and archived every 10 min. This paper introduces the NYSM Profiler Network and reviews the network design and siting, instrumentation, network operations and maintenance, data and products, and some example applications that highlight the benefits of the network. Some sample applications include improved situational awareness and monitoring of the sea–land breeze, long-range wildfire smoke transport, air quality (PM2.5 and aerosol optical depth) and boundary layer height. Ground-based profiling systems promise a path forward for filling a critical gap in the U.S. observing system with the potential to improve analysis and prediction for many weather-sensitive sectors, such as aviation, ground transportation, health, and wind energy.

Significance Statement

The New York State Mesonet (NYSM) Profiler Network enables routine measurement of aboveground weather data and products to monitor weather and air quality across the state at high resolutions. The NYSM Profiler Network provides real-time vertical profile information to users across the emergency management, aviation, utility, and public health sectors, including NOAA and NASA, for operations and research, filling a critical gap in monitoring the low-level atmosphere. These data have been used to improve situational awareness and monitor boundary layer dynamics, sea-land breeze development, precipitation type, and air quality. Most important, the NYSM Profiler Network provides a national testbed for the creation and evaluation of new ground-based profiling instrumentation and products.

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Michael J. Ventrice
,
Matthew C. Wheeler
,
Harry H. Hendon
,
Carl J. Schreck III
,
Chris D. Thorncroft
, and
George N. Kiladis

Abstract

A new Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) index is developed from a combined empirical orthogonal function (EOF) analysis of meridionally averaged 200-hPa velocity potential (VP200), 200-hPa zonal wind (U200), and 850-hPa zonal wind (U850). Like the Wheeler–Hendon Real-time Multivariate MJO (RMM) index, which was developed in the same way except using outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) data instead of VP200, daily data are projected onto the leading pair of EOFs to produce the two-component index. This new index is called the velocity potential MJO (VPM) indices and its properties are quantitatively compared to RMM. Compared to the RMM index, the VPM index detects larger-amplitude MJO-associated signals during boreal summer. This includes a slightly stronger and more coherent modulation of Atlantic tropical cyclones. This result is attributed to the fact that velocity potential preferentially emphasizes the planetary-scale aspects of the divergent circulation, thereby spreading the convectively driven component of the MJO’s signal across the entire globe. VP200 thus deemphasizes the convective signal of the MJO over the Indian Ocean warm pool, where the OLR variability associated with the MJO is concentrated, and enhances the signal over the relatively drier longitudes of the equatorial Pacific and Atlantic. This work provides a useful framework for systematic analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of different MJO indices.

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The JET2000 Project: Aircraft Observations of the African Easterly Jet and African Easterly Waves

Aircraft Observations of the African Easterly Jet and African Easterly Waves

C. D. Thorncroft
,
D. J. Parker
,
R. R. Burton
,
M. Diop
,
J. H. Ayers
,
H. Barjat
,
S. Devereau
,
A. Diongue
,
R. Dumelow
,
D. R. Kindred
,
N. M. Price
,
M. Saloum
,
C. M. Tayor
, and
A. M. Tompkins

Scientific background and motivation for the JET2000 aircraft observing campaign that took place in West Africa during the last week of August 2000 are presented. The Met Research Flight CI30 aircraft made two flights along the African easterly jet (AEJ) between Sal, Cape Verde, and Niamey, Niger, and two “box” flights that twice crossed the AEJ at longitudes near Niamey. Dropsondes were released at approximately 0.5°–10° intervals. The two box flights also included low-level flights that sampled north–south variations in boundary layer properties in the baroclinic zone beneath the AEJ.

Preliminary results and analysis of the JET2000 period including some of the aircraft data are presented. The JET2000 campaign occurred during a relatively dry period in the Niamey region and, perhaps consistent with this, was also associated with less coherent easterly wave activity compared to other periods in the season. Meridional cross sections of the AEJ on 28 and 29 August (after the passage of a mesoscale system) are presented and discussed. Analysis of dropsonde data on 28 August indicates contrasting convective characteristics north and south of the AEJ with dry convection more dominant to the north and moist convection more dominant to the south. The consequences of this for the AEJ and the relationship with the boundary layer observations are briefly discussed.

Preliminary NWP results indicate little sensitivity to the inclusion of the dropsonde data on the AEJ winds in European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) and Met Office analyses. It is proposed that this may be due to a good surface analysis and a realistic model response to this. Both models poorly predict the AEJ in the 5-day forecast indicating the need for more process studies in the region.

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Jerald A. Brotzge
,
J. Wang
,
C. D. Thorncroft
,
E. Joseph
,
N. Bain
,
N. Bassill
,
N. Farruggio
,
J. M. Freedman
,
K. Hemker Jr.
,
D. Johnston
,
E. Kane
,
S. McKim
,
S. D. Miller
,
J. R. Minder
,
P. Naple
,
S. Perez
,
James J. Schwab
,
M. J. Schwab
, and
J. Sicker

Abstract

The New York State Mesonet (NYSM) is a network of 126 standard environmental monitoring stations deployed statewide with an average spacing of 27 km. The primary goal of the NYSM is to provide high-quality weather data at high spatial and temporal scales to improve atmospheric monitoring and prediction, especially for extreme weather events. As compared with other statewide networks, the NYSM faced considerable deployment obstacles with New York’s complex terrain, forests, and very rural and urban areas; its wide range of weather extremes; and its harsh winter conditions. To overcome these challenges, the NYSM adopted a number of innovations unique among statewide monitoring systems, including 1) strict adherence to international siting standards and metadata documentation; 2) a hardened system design to facilitate continued operations during extreme, high-impact weather; 3) a station design optimized to monitor winter weather conditions; and 4) a camera installed at every site to aid situational awareness. The network was completed in spring of 2018 and provides data and products to a variety of sectors including weather monitoring and forecasting, emergency management, agriculture, transportation, utilities, and education. This paper focuses on the standard network of the NYSM and reviews the network siting, site configuration, sensors, site communications and power, network operations and maintenance, data quality control, and dissemination. A few example analyses are shown that highlight the benefits of the NYSM.

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D. B. Parsons
,
M. Beland
,
D. Burridge
,
P. Bougeault
,
G. Brunet
,
J. Caughey
,
S. M. Cavallo
,
M. Charron
,
H. C. Davies
,
A. Diongue Niang
,
V. Ducrocq
,
P. Gauthier
,
T. M. Hamill
,
P. A. Harr
,
S. C. Jones
,
R. H. Langland
,
S. J. Majumdar
,
B. N. Mills
,
M. Moncrieff
,
T. Nakazawa
,
T. Paccagnella
,
F. Rabier
,
J.-L. Redelsperger
,
C. Riedel
,
R. W. Saunders
,
M. A. Shapiro
,
R. Swinbank
,
I. Szunyogh
,
C. Thorncroft
,
A. J. Thorpe
,
X. Wang
,
D. Waliser
,
H. Wernli
, and
Z. Toth

Abstract

The Observing System Research and Predictability Experiment (THORPEX) was a 10-yr, international research program organized by the World Meteorological Organization’s World Weather Research Program. THORPEX was motivated by the need to accelerate the rate of improvement in the accuracy of 1-day to 2-week forecasts of high-impact weather for the benefit of society, the economy, and the environment. THORPEX, which took place from 2005 to 2014, was the first major international program focusing on the advancement of global numerical weather prediction systems since the Global Atmospheric Research Program, which took place almost 40 years earlier, from 1967 through 1982. The scientific achievements of THORPEX were accomplished through bringing together scientists from operational centers, research laboratories, and the academic community to collaborate on research that would ultimately advance operational predictive skill. THORPEX included an unprecedented effort to make operational products readily accessible to the broader academic research community, with community efforts focused on problems where challenging science intersected with the potential to accelerate improvements in predictive skill. THORPEX also collaborated with other major programs to identify research areas of mutual interest, such as topics at the intersection of weather and climate. THORPEX research has 1) increased our knowledge of the global-to-regional influences on the initiation, evolution, and predictability of high-impact weather; 2) provided insight into how predictive skill depends on observing strategies and observing systems; 3) improved data assimilation and ensemble forecast systems; 4) advanced knowledge of high-impact weather associated with tropical and polar circulations and their interactions with midlatitude flows; and 5) expanded society’s use of weather information through applied and social science research.

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