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- Author or Editor: Christopher S. Velden x
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Abstract
The evolution of upper-tropospheric thermal patterns associated with extratropical cyclone events is often not well represented by the conventional observational network, especially in marine situations. In this paper, a potential tool for qualitatively analyzing tropopause-level thermal structure and variations based on remotely sensed passive microwave data from satellites is examined. Specifically, warm anomalies associated with tropopause undulations in upper-tropospheric waves are captured in imagery from the 54.96-GHz channel of the Microwave Sounding Unit (MSU) onboard the current series of NOAA polar-orbiting satellites. Examples of this imagery during selected western North Atlantic cyclone events are presented, and the potential usefulness of these observations in analysis and forecasting is discussed.
Abstract
The evolution of upper-tropospheric thermal patterns associated with extratropical cyclone events is often not well represented by the conventional observational network, especially in marine situations. In this paper, a potential tool for qualitatively analyzing tropopause-level thermal structure and variations based on remotely sensed passive microwave data from satellites is examined. Specifically, warm anomalies associated with tropopause undulations in upper-tropospheric waves are captured in imagery from the 54.96-GHz channel of the Microwave Sounding Unit (MSU) onboard the current series of NOAA polar-orbiting satellites. Examples of this imagery during selected western North Atlantic cyclone events are presented, and the potential usefulness of these observations in analysis and forecasting is discussed.
Abstract
Passive microwave observations from the current NOAA series of polar-orbiting satellites of a large sample of North Atlantic tropical cyclones are qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed. Microwave observations can penetrate the cloud cover associated with tropical cyclones and capture the upper-level warm temperature anomaly, which is characteristic of these storms. The data are used to develop a statistical algorithm for estimating surface intensity. Based upon hydrostatic assumptions, linear regression relationships are developed between the satellite-depicted horizontal temperature gradient of the upper-level warm core (ΔT 250), and the surface intensity (ΔP SFC) as measured by reconnaissance reports. A good correlation is found to exist. Results indicate that standard errors of estimate of 8 mb and 13 kts are found for surface pressure and maximum winds, respectively. These errors are reduced when the effects of storm latitude, eye size, and surface-pressure tendency on the relationship are included. Knowledge gained in examining the accuracies and limitations of the current microwave sounders in tropical cyclone applications will be helpful in setting quantitative observational guidelines for future instruments.
Abstract
Passive microwave observations from the current NOAA series of polar-orbiting satellites of a large sample of North Atlantic tropical cyclones are qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed. Microwave observations can penetrate the cloud cover associated with tropical cyclones and capture the upper-level warm temperature anomaly, which is characteristic of these storms. The data are used to develop a statistical algorithm for estimating surface intensity. Based upon hydrostatic assumptions, linear regression relationships are developed between the satellite-depicted horizontal temperature gradient of the upper-level warm core (ΔT 250), and the surface intensity (ΔP SFC) as measured by reconnaissance reports. A good correlation is found to exist. Results indicate that standard errors of estimate of 8 mb and 13 kts are found for surface pressure and maximum winds, respectively. These errors are reduced when the effects of storm latitude, eye size, and surface-pressure tendency on the relationship are included. Knowledge gained in examining the accuracies and limitations of the current microwave sounders in tropical cyclone applications will be helpful in setting quantitative observational guidelines for future instruments.
Satellite imagery from the VISSR (Visible Infrared Spin Scan Radiometer) Atmospheric Sounder (VAS) 6.7-μm water-vapor absorption band is normally available to the National Hurricane Center (NHC) in real time (half-hourly intervals, 16 hours a day) through a remote Man-computer Interactive Data Access System (McIDAS) workstation located in the forecast center. Synoptic features that are not readily apparent in “visible” imagery or “11-μm-infrared” imagery are often well defined in the VAS “water-vapor” imagery with the help of special enhancement software that exists on McIDAS. A good example is Hurricane Elena (1985). Its erratic path in the Gulf of Mexico was responsible for the evacuation of nearly a million people in low-lying coastal areas during a three-day period. Imagery from the VAS 6.7-μm water-vapor channel clearly shows the interaction of a midlatitude trough with the hurricane, and supports other evidence that suggests this was responsible for altering Elena's course.
Satellite imagery from the VISSR (Visible Infrared Spin Scan Radiometer) Atmospheric Sounder (VAS) 6.7-μm water-vapor absorption band is normally available to the National Hurricane Center (NHC) in real time (half-hourly intervals, 16 hours a day) through a remote Man-computer Interactive Data Access System (McIDAS) workstation located in the forecast center. Synoptic features that are not readily apparent in “visible” imagery or “11-μm-infrared” imagery are often well defined in the VAS “water-vapor” imagery with the help of special enhancement software that exists on McIDAS. A good example is Hurricane Elena (1985). Its erratic path in the Gulf of Mexico was responsible for the evacuation of nearly a million people in low-lying coastal areas during a three-day period. Imagery from the VAS 6.7-μm water-vapor channel clearly shows the interaction of a midlatitude trough with the hurricane, and supports other evidence that suggests this was responsible for altering Elena's course.
Abstract
Isentropic coordinate analyses of rawinsondes and cloud motion wind vectors derived from geostationary satellite imagery are employed to describe the three-dimensional upper-tropospheric and lower-stratospheric circulation attending western North Pacific Supertyphoon Flo during September 1990. Outflow from the storm is concentrated in several evolving channels in the horizontal. In terms of vertical structure, net outflow evaluated at 6° latitude (666 km) radius is found to occur at higher levels and over an increasing range of potential temperature θ as the tropical cyclone intensifies. Outflow on the equatorward side of the tropical cyclone tends to occur at greater θ values (higher altitudes) than poleward outflow. Potential vorticity also decreases within the corresponding isentropic layers associated with the outflow. The implications of the vertical variability of outflow structure in terms of the interactions between storm and environment, and effects on storm structural changes, are considered briefly.
Abstract
Isentropic coordinate analyses of rawinsondes and cloud motion wind vectors derived from geostationary satellite imagery are employed to describe the three-dimensional upper-tropospheric and lower-stratospheric circulation attending western North Pacific Supertyphoon Flo during September 1990. Outflow from the storm is concentrated in several evolving channels in the horizontal. In terms of vertical structure, net outflow evaluated at 6° latitude (666 km) radius is found to occur at higher levels and over an increasing range of potential temperature θ as the tropical cyclone intensifies. Outflow on the equatorward side of the tropical cyclone tends to occur at greater θ values (higher altitudes) than poleward outflow. Potential vorticity also decreases within the corresponding isentropic layers associated with the outflow. The implications of the vertical variability of outflow structure in terms of the interactions between storm and environment, and effects on storm structural changes, are considered briefly.
Abstract
The 1992/93 Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Response Experiment (COARE) was specifically designed to monitor multiscale interactions between the atmosphere and ocean over the western Pacific warm pool. To help meet this objective, satellite observations were used to augment the enhanced COARE conventional data array in both space and time.
In this paper the authors present a descriptive overview of convective cloud variability and sea surface temperature during the four-month intensive observational period (IOP) as revealed by satellite. Time series of Geostationary Meteorological Satellite infrared brightness temperatures are evaluated at selected equatorial locations in the western Pacific and eastern Indian Oceans. Intraseasonal modes of transient convection/cloudiness are revealed, with two eastward-propagating Madden-Julian oscillations identified. Spectral analysis on the time series data indicates that higher-frequency variations in regional convective activity are also found to occur.
Several satellite cloud signatures and patterns were detected during a strong west wind burst event in late December (1992), and these are described in detail. Time-composited sea surface temperature (SST) fields derived from satellite radiances indicate that significant regional variations in SST occurred during the passage of the west wind event. The satellite-derived SST fields compiled during the IOP are validated against in situ observations in the COARE domain, with a 0.25°C warm bias noted in the composited satellite data.
Abstract
The 1992/93 Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Response Experiment (COARE) was specifically designed to monitor multiscale interactions between the atmosphere and ocean over the western Pacific warm pool. To help meet this objective, satellite observations were used to augment the enhanced COARE conventional data array in both space and time.
In this paper the authors present a descriptive overview of convective cloud variability and sea surface temperature during the four-month intensive observational period (IOP) as revealed by satellite. Time series of Geostationary Meteorological Satellite infrared brightness temperatures are evaluated at selected equatorial locations in the western Pacific and eastern Indian Oceans. Intraseasonal modes of transient convection/cloudiness are revealed, with two eastward-propagating Madden-Julian oscillations identified. Spectral analysis on the time series data indicates that higher-frequency variations in regional convective activity are also found to occur.
Several satellite cloud signatures and patterns were detected during a strong west wind burst event in late December (1992), and these are described in detail. Time-composited sea surface temperature (SST) fields derived from satellite radiances indicate that significant regional variations in SST occurred during the passage of the west wind event. The satellite-derived SST fields compiled during the IOP are validated against in situ observations in the COARE domain, with a 0.25°C warm bias noted in the composited satellite data.
Abstract
Satellite-borne passive microwave radiometers, such as the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit (AMSU) on the NOAA polar-orbiting series, are well suited to monitor tropical cyclones (TCs) by virtue of their ability to assess changes in tropospheric warm core structure in the presence of clouds. The temporal variability in TC upper-tropospheric warm anomaly (UTWA) size, structure, and magnitude provides vital information on changes in kinematic structure and minimum sea level pressure (MSLP) through well-established thermodynamic and dynamic principles. This study outlines the aspects of several factors affecting the effective AMSU measurement accuracy of UTWAs, including the practical application of a previously developed maximum likelihood regression algorithm designed to explicitly correct for TC scan geometry and UTWA–antenna gain pattern interaction issues (UTWA subsampling) unique to TC warm core applications. This single-channel AMSU approach (54.96 GHz) is the first step toward a more elaborate multichannel application that is currently under study. Independent application of the single-channel algorithm in the Atlantic and eastern Pacific basins in 2000 and 2001 demonstrates that AMSU-derived UTWAs are moderately correlated with coincident TC MSLP. In addition, further improvements in correlation, and MSLP estimate accuracy, are possible through application of the proposed corrective retrieval algorithm, provided that 1) accurate estimates of TC eye size (a proxy for the UTWA horizontal dimension) are available and 2) the peak upper-tropospheric warming represented by the AMSU-A 54.94-GHz radiances corresponds with the actual TC thermal structure. This study recommends potential remedies for both of these algorithm skill prerequisites that include the incorporation of improved eye size estimates from ancillary data sources and/or the utilization of additional AMSU-A upper-tropospheric sounding channels.
Abstract
Satellite-borne passive microwave radiometers, such as the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit (AMSU) on the NOAA polar-orbiting series, are well suited to monitor tropical cyclones (TCs) by virtue of their ability to assess changes in tropospheric warm core structure in the presence of clouds. The temporal variability in TC upper-tropospheric warm anomaly (UTWA) size, structure, and magnitude provides vital information on changes in kinematic structure and minimum sea level pressure (MSLP) through well-established thermodynamic and dynamic principles. This study outlines the aspects of several factors affecting the effective AMSU measurement accuracy of UTWAs, including the practical application of a previously developed maximum likelihood regression algorithm designed to explicitly correct for TC scan geometry and UTWA–antenna gain pattern interaction issues (UTWA subsampling) unique to TC warm core applications. This single-channel AMSU approach (54.96 GHz) is the first step toward a more elaborate multichannel application that is currently under study. Independent application of the single-channel algorithm in the Atlantic and eastern Pacific basins in 2000 and 2001 demonstrates that AMSU-derived UTWAs are moderately correlated with coincident TC MSLP. In addition, further improvements in correlation, and MSLP estimate accuracy, are possible through application of the proposed corrective retrieval algorithm, provided that 1) accurate estimates of TC eye size (a proxy for the UTWA horizontal dimension) are available and 2) the peak upper-tropospheric warming represented by the AMSU-A 54.94-GHz radiances corresponds with the actual TC thermal structure. This study recommends potential remedies for both of these algorithm skill prerequisites that include the incorporation of improved eye size estimates from ancillary data sources and/or the utilization of additional AMSU-A upper-tropospheric sounding channels.
Abstract
Beginning with the 1997 hurricane season, the Cooperative Institute for Meteorological Satellite Studies at the University of Wisconsin—Madison began demonstrating the derivation of real-time Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) low-level cloud-drift winds in the vicinity of Atlantic tropical cyclones. The winds are derived from tracking low-level clouds in sequential, high-resolution GOES visible channel imagery. Since then, these data have been provided to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Hurricane Research Division (HRD) for evaluation in their real-time tropical cyclone surface wind objective analyses (H*Wind) that are disseminated to forecasters at the NOAA National Hurricane Center on an experimental basis. These wind analyses are proving useful as guidance to support forecasters's tropical cyclone advisories and warnings. The GOES satellite wind observations often provide essential near-surface coverage in the outer radii of the tropical cyclone circulation where conventional in situ observations (e.g., ships and buoys) are frequently widely spaced or nonexistent and reconnaissance aircraft do not normally fly. The GOES low-level cloud-tracked winds are extrapolated to the surface using a planetary boundary layer model developed at HRD for hurricane environments.
In this study, the unadjusted GOES winds are validated against wind profiles from the newly deployed global positioning system dropwindsondes, and the surface-adjusted winds are compared with collocated in situ surface measurements. The results show the ability of the GOES winds to provide valuable quantitative data in the periphery of tropical cyclones. It is also shown that the current scheme employed to extrapolate the winds to the surface results in small biases in both speed and direction. Nonlinear adjustments to account for these biases are presented.
Abstract
Beginning with the 1997 hurricane season, the Cooperative Institute for Meteorological Satellite Studies at the University of Wisconsin—Madison began demonstrating the derivation of real-time Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) low-level cloud-drift winds in the vicinity of Atlantic tropical cyclones. The winds are derived from tracking low-level clouds in sequential, high-resolution GOES visible channel imagery. Since then, these data have been provided to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Hurricane Research Division (HRD) for evaluation in their real-time tropical cyclone surface wind objective analyses (H*Wind) that are disseminated to forecasters at the NOAA National Hurricane Center on an experimental basis. These wind analyses are proving useful as guidance to support forecasters's tropical cyclone advisories and warnings. The GOES satellite wind observations often provide essential near-surface coverage in the outer radii of the tropical cyclone circulation where conventional in situ observations (e.g., ships and buoys) are frequently widely spaced or nonexistent and reconnaissance aircraft do not normally fly. The GOES low-level cloud-tracked winds are extrapolated to the surface using a planetary boundary layer model developed at HRD for hurricane environments.
In this study, the unadjusted GOES winds are validated against wind profiles from the newly deployed global positioning system dropwindsondes, and the surface-adjusted winds are compared with collocated in situ surface measurements. The results show the ability of the GOES winds to provide valuable quantitative data in the periphery of tropical cyclones. It is also shown that the current scheme employed to extrapolate the winds to the surface results in small biases in both speed and direction. Nonlinear adjustments to account for these biases are presented.
Abstract
On 1 December 1987, an unusual midlatitude cyclone affected much of southeastern Australia. The storm was characterized by unforced rapid deepening to a near record low (locally) mean sea-level pressure, high winds, anomalously cold surface temperatures, and near-record rainfall in some areas. The storm resulted in extensive damage, including a massive livestock kill. Comparison with storm tracks over southern Australia from the past 20 years shows that the path of this storm was quite unusual for this time of year.
Utilizing a series of analyses prepared from an incremental limited area data assimilation system, it is shown that: 1) an amplifying upper-tropospheric wave influenced the initial development and path of the cyclone as it crossed the southern coast of Australia, 2) transverse circulations associated with two juxtaposed upper-level jet streaks embedded in the wave focussed upper-level divergence and midlevel ascent over the low during its rapid intensification phase, and 3) a distinct upper-tropospheric isentropic potential vorticity maximum was identified well upstream of the developing low, but with no evidence of an extrusion of this air penetrating and enhancing the low-level circulation as has been found in other cases of rapid cyclogenesis.
Given that inadequate operational numerical weather prediction (NWP) guidance was partially to blame for the underforecast of this event, the operational limited area NWP forecasts are presented and compared with forecasts based on the research analyses from the assimilation system. 11 is shown that improved forecasts of cyclone intensification and of precipitation result when the model is initialized with the assimilation analyses. Further improvements are obtained when the grid resolution of the forecast model is increased. With the operational implementation of the assimilation system into the Australian Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) in 1989, the improved guidance resulting from the assimilated analyses is currently available to forecasters in Australia.
Abstract
On 1 December 1987, an unusual midlatitude cyclone affected much of southeastern Australia. The storm was characterized by unforced rapid deepening to a near record low (locally) mean sea-level pressure, high winds, anomalously cold surface temperatures, and near-record rainfall in some areas. The storm resulted in extensive damage, including a massive livestock kill. Comparison with storm tracks over southern Australia from the past 20 years shows that the path of this storm was quite unusual for this time of year.
Utilizing a series of analyses prepared from an incremental limited area data assimilation system, it is shown that: 1) an amplifying upper-tropospheric wave influenced the initial development and path of the cyclone as it crossed the southern coast of Australia, 2) transverse circulations associated with two juxtaposed upper-level jet streaks embedded in the wave focussed upper-level divergence and midlevel ascent over the low during its rapid intensification phase, and 3) a distinct upper-tropospheric isentropic potential vorticity maximum was identified well upstream of the developing low, but with no evidence of an extrusion of this air penetrating and enhancing the low-level circulation as has been found in other cases of rapid cyclogenesis.
Given that inadequate operational numerical weather prediction (NWP) guidance was partially to blame for the underforecast of this event, the operational limited area NWP forecasts are presented and compared with forecasts based on the research analyses from the assimilation system. 11 is shown that improved forecasts of cyclone intensification and of precipitation result when the model is initialized with the assimilation analyses. Further improvements are obtained when the grid resolution of the forecast model is increased. With the operational implementation of the assimilation system into the Australian Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) in 1989, the improved guidance resulting from the assimilated analyses is currently available to forecasters in Australia.
Abstract
A simple barotropic model is employed to investigate relative impacts on tropical cyclone motion forecasts in the Australian region when wind analyses from different tropospheric levels or layers are used as the input to the model. The model is initialized with selected horizontal wind analyses from individual pressure levels, and vertical averages of several pressure levels (layer-means).
The 48-h mean forecast errors (MFE) from this model are analyzed for 300 tropical cyclone cases that cover a wide range of intensities. A significant reduction in the track forecast errors results when the depth of the vertically-averaged initial wind analysis depends upon the initial storm intensity. Mean forecast errors show that the traditionally-utilized 1000-100-hPa deep layer-mean (DLM) analysis is a good approximation of future motion only in cases of very intense tropical cyclones. Shallower, lower-tropospheric layer-means consistently outperform single-level analyses, and are best correlated with future motion in weak and moderate intensity cases.
These results suggest that barotropic track forecasting in the Australian region can be significantly improved if the depth of the vertically-averaged initial wind analysis is based upon the tropical cyclone intensity.
Abstract
A simple barotropic model is employed to investigate relative impacts on tropical cyclone motion forecasts in the Australian region when wind analyses from different tropospheric levels or layers are used as the input to the model. The model is initialized with selected horizontal wind analyses from individual pressure levels, and vertical averages of several pressure levels (layer-means).
The 48-h mean forecast errors (MFE) from this model are analyzed for 300 tropical cyclone cases that cover a wide range of intensities. A significant reduction in the track forecast errors results when the depth of the vertically-averaged initial wind analysis depends upon the initial storm intensity. Mean forecast errors show that the traditionally-utilized 1000-100-hPa deep layer-mean (DLM) analysis is a good approximation of future motion only in cases of very intense tropical cyclones. Shallower, lower-tropospheric layer-means consistently outperform single-level analyses, and are best correlated with future motion in weak and moderate intensity cases.
These results suggest that barotropic track forecasting in the Australian region can be significantly improved if the depth of the vertically-averaged initial wind analysis is based upon the tropical cyclone intensity.
ABSTRACT
A consensus-based algorithm for estimating the current intensity of global tropical cyclones (TCs) from meteorological satellites is described. The method objectively combines intensity estimates from infrared and microwave-based techniques to produce a consensus TC intensity estimate, which is more skillful than the individual members. The method, called Satellite Consensus (SATCON), can be run in near–real time and employs information sharing between member algorithms and a weighting strategy that relies on the situational precision of each member. An evaluation of the consensus algorithm’s performance in comparison with its individual members and other available operational estimates of TC intensity is presented. It is shown that SATCON can provide valuable objective intensity estimates for poststorm assessments, especially in the absence of other data such as provided by reconnaissance aircraft. It can also serve as a near-real-time estimator of TC intensity for forecasters, with the ability to quickly reconcile differences in objective intensity methods and thus decrease the uncertainty and amount of time spent on the intensity analysis. Near-real-time SATCON estimates are being provided to global operational TC forecast centers.
ABSTRACT
A consensus-based algorithm for estimating the current intensity of global tropical cyclones (TCs) from meteorological satellites is described. The method objectively combines intensity estimates from infrared and microwave-based techniques to produce a consensus TC intensity estimate, which is more skillful than the individual members. The method, called Satellite Consensus (SATCON), can be run in near–real time and employs information sharing between member algorithms and a weighting strategy that relies on the situational precision of each member. An evaluation of the consensus algorithm’s performance in comparison with its individual members and other available operational estimates of TC intensity is presented. It is shown that SATCON can provide valuable objective intensity estimates for poststorm assessments, especially in the absence of other data such as provided by reconnaissance aircraft. It can also serve as a near-real-time estimator of TC intensity for forecasters, with the ability to quickly reconcile differences in objective intensity methods and thus decrease the uncertainty and amount of time spent on the intensity analysis. Near-real-time SATCON estimates are being provided to global operational TC forecast centers.
