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- Author or Editor: D. Bouniol x
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Abstract
Mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) are important to the water and energy budget of the tropical climate and are essential ingredients of the tropical circulation. MCSs are readily observed in satellite infrared geostationary imagery as cloud clusters that evolve in time from small structures to well-organized large patches of cloud shield before dissipating. The MCS cloud shield is the result of a large ensemble of mesoscale dynamical, thermodynamical, and microphysical processes. This study shows that a simple parametric model can summarize the time evolution of the morphological characteristics of the cloud shield during the life cycle of the MCS. It consists of a growth–decay linear model of the cloud shield and is based on three parameters: the time of maximum extent, the maximum extent, and the duration of the MCS. It is shown that the time of maximum is frequently close to the middle of the life cycle and that the correlation between maximum extent and duration is strong all over the tropics. This suggests that 1 degree of freedom is left to summarize the life cycle of the MCS cloud shield. Such a model fits the observed MCS equally well, independent of the duration, size, location, and propagation characteristics, and its relevance is assessed for a large number of MCSs over three boreal summer periods over the whole tropical belt. The scaling of this simple model exhibits weak (strong) regional variability for the short- (long-) lived systems indicative of the primary importance of the internal dynamics of the systems to the large-scale environment for MCS sustainability.
Abstract
Mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) are important to the water and energy budget of the tropical climate and are essential ingredients of the tropical circulation. MCSs are readily observed in satellite infrared geostationary imagery as cloud clusters that evolve in time from small structures to well-organized large patches of cloud shield before dissipating. The MCS cloud shield is the result of a large ensemble of mesoscale dynamical, thermodynamical, and microphysical processes. This study shows that a simple parametric model can summarize the time evolution of the morphological characteristics of the cloud shield during the life cycle of the MCS. It consists of a growth–decay linear model of the cloud shield and is based on three parameters: the time of maximum extent, the maximum extent, and the duration of the MCS. It is shown that the time of maximum is frequently close to the middle of the life cycle and that the correlation between maximum extent and duration is strong all over the tropics. This suggests that 1 degree of freedom is left to summarize the life cycle of the MCS cloud shield. Such a model fits the observed MCS equally well, independent of the duration, size, location, and propagation characteristics, and its relevance is assessed for a large number of MCSs over three boreal summer periods over the whole tropical belt. The scaling of this simple model exhibits weak (strong) regional variability for the short- (long-) lived systems indicative of the primary importance of the internal dynamics of the systems to the large-scale environment for MCS sustainability.
Abstract
In the Sahel very high temperatures prevail in spring, but little is known about heat waves in this region at that time of year. This study documents Sahelian heat waves with a new methodology that allows selecting heat waves at specific spatiotemporal scales and can be used in other parts of the world. It is applied separately to daily maximum and minimum temperatures, as they lead to the identification of distinct events. Synoptic–intraseasonal Sahelian heat waves are characterized from March to July over the period 1950–2012 with the Berkeley Earth Surface Temperature (BEST) gridded dataset. Morphological and temperature-related characteristics of the selected heat waves are presented. From March to July, the further into the season, the shorter and the less frequent the heat waves become. From 1950 to 2012, these synoptic–intraseasonal heat waves do not tend to be more frequent; however, they become warmer, and this trend follows the Sahelian climatic trend. Compared to other commonly used indices, the present index tends to select heat waves with more uniform intensities. This comparison of indices also underlined the importance of the heat index definition on the estimated climatic heat wave trends in a changing climate. Finally, heat waves were identified with data from three meteorological reanalyses: ERA-Interim, MERRA, and NCEP-2. The spreads in temperature variabilities, seasonal cycles, and trends among reanalyses lead to differences in the characteristics, interannual variability, and climatic trends of heat waves, with fewer departures from BEST for ERA-Interim.
Abstract
In the Sahel very high temperatures prevail in spring, but little is known about heat waves in this region at that time of year. This study documents Sahelian heat waves with a new methodology that allows selecting heat waves at specific spatiotemporal scales and can be used in other parts of the world. It is applied separately to daily maximum and minimum temperatures, as they lead to the identification of distinct events. Synoptic–intraseasonal Sahelian heat waves are characterized from March to July over the period 1950–2012 with the Berkeley Earth Surface Temperature (BEST) gridded dataset. Morphological and temperature-related characteristics of the selected heat waves are presented. From March to July, the further into the season, the shorter and the less frequent the heat waves become. From 1950 to 2012, these synoptic–intraseasonal heat waves do not tend to be more frequent; however, they become warmer, and this trend follows the Sahelian climatic trend. Compared to other commonly used indices, the present index tends to select heat waves with more uniform intensities. This comparison of indices also underlined the importance of the heat index definition on the estimated climatic heat wave trends in a changing climate. Finally, heat waves were identified with data from three meteorological reanalyses: ERA-Interim, MERRA, and NCEP-2. The spreads in temperature variabilities, seasonal cycles, and trends among reanalyses lead to differences in the characteristics, interannual variability, and climatic trends of heat waves, with fewer departures from BEST for ERA-Interim.
Abstract
Mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) are important drivers of the atmospheric large-scale circulation through their associated diabatic heating profile. Taking advantage of recent tracking techniques, this study investigates the evolution of macrophysical, microphysical, and radiative properties over the MCS life cycle by merging geostationary and polar-orbiting satellite data. These observations are performed in three major convective areas: continental West Africa, the adjacent Atlantic Ocean, and the open Indian Ocean. MCS properties are also investigated according to internal subregions (convective, stratiform, and nonprecipitating anvil). Continental MCSs show a specific life cycle, with more intense convection at the beginning. Larger and denser hydrometeors are thus found at higher altitudes, as well as up to the cirriform subregion. Oceanic MCSs have more constant reflectivity values, suggesting a less intense convective updraft, but more persistent intensity. A layer of small crystals is found in all subregions, but with a depth that varies according to the MCS subregion and life cycle. Radiative properties are also examined. It appears that the evolution of large and dense hydrometeors tends to control the evolution of the cloud albedo and the outgoing longwave radiation. The impact of dense hydrometeors, detrained from the convective towers, is also seen in the radiative heating profiles, in particular in the shortwave domain. A dipole of cooling near the cloud top and heating near the cloud base is found in the longwave; this cooling intensifies near the end of the life cycle.
Abstract
Mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) are important drivers of the atmospheric large-scale circulation through their associated diabatic heating profile. Taking advantage of recent tracking techniques, this study investigates the evolution of macrophysical, microphysical, and radiative properties over the MCS life cycle by merging geostationary and polar-orbiting satellite data. These observations are performed in three major convective areas: continental West Africa, the adjacent Atlantic Ocean, and the open Indian Ocean. MCS properties are also investigated according to internal subregions (convective, stratiform, and nonprecipitating anvil). Continental MCSs show a specific life cycle, with more intense convection at the beginning. Larger and denser hydrometeors are thus found at higher altitudes, as well as up to the cirriform subregion. Oceanic MCSs have more constant reflectivity values, suggesting a less intense convective updraft, but more persistent intensity. A layer of small crystals is found in all subregions, but with a depth that varies according to the MCS subregion and life cycle. Radiative properties are also examined. It appears that the evolution of large and dense hydrometeors tends to control the evolution of the cloud albedo and the outgoing longwave radiation. The impact of dense hydrometeors, detrained from the convective towers, is also seen in the radiative heating profiles, in particular in the shortwave domain. A dipole of cooling near the cloud top and heating near the cloud base is found in the longwave; this cooling intensifies near the end of the life cycle.
Abstract
The paper describes an original method that is complementary to the radar–lidar algorithm method to characterize ice cloud properties. The method makes use of two measurements from a Doppler cloud radar (35 or 95 GHz), namely, the radar reflectivity and the Doppler velocity, to recover the effective radius of crystals, the terminal fall velocity of hydrometeors, the ice water content, and the visible extinction from which the optical depth can be estimated. This radar method relies on the concept of scaling the ice particle size distribution. An error analysis using an extensive in situ airborne microphysical database shows that the expected errors on ice water content and extinction are around 30%–40% and 60%, respectively, including both a calibration error and a bias on the terminal fall velocity of the particles, which all translate into errors in the retrieval of the density–diameter and area–diameter relationships. Comparisons with the radar–lidar method in areas sampled by the two instruments also demonstrate the accuracy of this new method for retrieval of the cloud properties, with a roughly unbiased estimate of all cloud properties with respect to the radar–lidar method. This method is being systematically applied to the cloud radar measurements collected over the three-instrumented sites of the European Cloudnet project to validate the representation of ice clouds in numerical weather prediction models and to build a cloud climatology.
Abstract
The paper describes an original method that is complementary to the radar–lidar algorithm method to characterize ice cloud properties. The method makes use of two measurements from a Doppler cloud radar (35 or 95 GHz), namely, the radar reflectivity and the Doppler velocity, to recover the effective radius of crystals, the terminal fall velocity of hydrometeors, the ice water content, and the visible extinction from which the optical depth can be estimated. This radar method relies on the concept of scaling the ice particle size distribution. An error analysis using an extensive in situ airborne microphysical database shows that the expected errors on ice water content and extinction are around 30%–40% and 60%, respectively, including both a calibration error and a bias on the terminal fall velocity of the particles, which all translate into errors in the retrieval of the density–diameter and area–diameter relationships. Comparisons with the radar–lidar method in areas sampled by the two instruments also demonstrate the accuracy of this new method for retrieval of the cloud properties, with a roughly unbiased estimate of all cloud properties with respect to the radar–lidar method. This method is being systematically applied to the cloud radar measurements collected over the three-instrumented sites of the European Cloudnet project to validate the representation of ice clouds in numerical weather prediction models and to build a cloud climatology.
Abstract
The objective of this paper is to assess the performances of the proposed ice water content (IWC)–radar reflectivity Z and IWC–Z–temperature T relationships for accurate retrievals of IWC from radar in space or at ground-based sites, in the framework of the forthcoming CloudSat spaceborne radar, and of the European CloudNET and U.S. Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Program projects. For this purpose, a large airborne in situ microphysical database is used to perform a detailed error analysis of the IWC–Z and IWC–Z–T methods. This error analysis does not include the error resulting from the mass–dimension relationship assumed in these methods, although the expected magnitude of this error is bounded in the paper. First, this study reveals that the use of a single IWC–Z relationship to estimate IWC at global scale would be feasible up to −15 dBZ, but for larger reflectivities (and therefore larger IWCs) different sets of relationships would have to be used for midlatitude and tropical ice clouds. New IWC–Z and IWC–Z–T relationships are then developed from the large aircraft database and by splitting this database into midlatitude and tropical subsets, and an error analysis is performed. For the IWC–Z relationships, errors decrease roughly linearly from +210%/−70% for IWC = 10−4 g m−3 to +75%/−45% for IWC = 10−2 g m−3, are nearly constant (+50%/−33%) for the intermediate IWCs (0.03–1 g m−3), and then linearly increase up to +210%/−70% for the largest IWCs. The error curves have the same shape for the IWC–Z–T relationships, with a general reduction of errors with respect to the IWC–Z relationships. Comparisons with radar–lidar retrievals confirm these findings. The main improvement brought by the use of temperature as an additional constraint to the IWC retrieval is to reduce both the systematic overestimation and rms differences of the small IWCs (IWC < 0.01 g m−3). For the large IWCs, the use of temperature also results in a slight reduction of the rms differences but in a substantial reduction (by a factor of 2) of the systematic underestimation of the large IWCs, probably owing to a better account of the Mie effect when IWC–Z relationships are stratified by temperature.
Abstract
The objective of this paper is to assess the performances of the proposed ice water content (IWC)–radar reflectivity Z and IWC–Z–temperature T relationships for accurate retrievals of IWC from radar in space or at ground-based sites, in the framework of the forthcoming CloudSat spaceborne radar, and of the European CloudNET and U.S. Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Program projects. For this purpose, a large airborne in situ microphysical database is used to perform a detailed error analysis of the IWC–Z and IWC–Z–T methods. This error analysis does not include the error resulting from the mass–dimension relationship assumed in these methods, although the expected magnitude of this error is bounded in the paper. First, this study reveals that the use of a single IWC–Z relationship to estimate IWC at global scale would be feasible up to −15 dBZ, but for larger reflectivities (and therefore larger IWCs) different sets of relationships would have to be used for midlatitude and tropical ice clouds. New IWC–Z and IWC–Z–T relationships are then developed from the large aircraft database and by splitting this database into midlatitude and tropical subsets, and an error analysis is performed. For the IWC–Z relationships, errors decrease roughly linearly from +210%/−70% for IWC = 10−4 g m−3 to +75%/−45% for IWC = 10−2 g m−3, are nearly constant (+50%/−33%) for the intermediate IWCs (0.03–1 g m−3), and then linearly increase up to +210%/−70% for the largest IWCs. The error curves have the same shape for the IWC–Z–T relationships, with a general reduction of errors with respect to the IWC–Z relationships. Comparisons with radar–lidar retrievals confirm these findings. The main improvement brought by the use of temperature as an additional constraint to the IWC retrieval is to reduce both the systematic overestimation and rms differences of the small IWCs (IWC < 0.01 g m−3). For the large IWCs, the use of temperature also results in a slight reduction of the rms differences but in a substantial reduction (by a factor of 2) of the systematic underestimation of the large IWCs, probably owing to a better account of the Mie effect when IWC–Z relationships are stratified by temperature.
Abstract
The calibration of the CloudSat spaceborne cloud radar has been thoroughly assessed using very accurate internal link budgets before launch, comparisons with predicted ocean surface backscatter at 94 GHz, direct comparisons with airborne cloud radars, and statistical comparisons with ground-based cloud radars at different locations of the world. It is believed that the calibration of CloudSat is accurate to within 0.5–1 dB. In the present paper it is shown that an approach similar to that used for the statistical comparisons with ground-based radars can now be adopted the other way around to calibrate other ground-based or airborne radars against CloudSat and/or to detect anomalies in long time series of ground-based radar measurements, provided that the calibration of CloudSat is followed up closely (which is the case). The power of using CloudSat as a global radar calibrator is demonstrated using the Atmospheric Radiation Measurement cloud radar data taken at Barrow, Alaska, the cloud radar data from the Cabauw site, Netherlands, and airborne Doppler cloud radar measurements taken along the CloudSat track in the Arctic by the Radar System Airborne (RASTA) cloud radar installed in the French ATR-42 aircraft for the first time. It is found that the Barrow radar data in 2008 are calibrated too high by 9.8 dB, while the Cabauw radar data in 2008 are calibrated too low by 8.0 dB. The calibration of the RASTA airborne cloud radar using direct comparisons with CloudSat agrees well with the expected gains and losses resulting from the change in configuration that required verification of the RASTA calibration.
Abstract
The calibration of the CloudSat spaceborne cloud radar has been thoroughly assessed using very accurate internal link budgets before launch, comparisons with predicted ocean surface backscatter at 94 GHz, direct comparisons with airborne cloud radars, and statistical comparisons with ground-based cloud radars at different locations of the world. It is believed that the calibration of CloudSat is accurate to within 0.5–1 dB. In the present paper it is shown that an approach similar to that used for the statistical comparisons with ground-based radars can now be adopted the other way around to calibrate other ground-based or airborne radars against CloudSat and/or to detect anomalies in long time series of ground-based radar measurements, provided that the calibration of CloudSat is followed up closely (which is the case). The power of using CloudSat as a global radar calibrator is demonstrated using the Atmospheric Radiation Measurement cloud radar data taken at Barrow, Alaska, the cloud radar data from the Cabauw site, Netherlands, and airborne Doppler cloud radar measurements taken along the CloudSat track in the Arctic by the Radar System Airborne (RASTA) cloud radar installed in the French ATR-42 aircraft for the first time. It is found that the Barrow radar data in 2008 are calibrated too high by 9.8 dB, while the Cabauw radar data in 2008 are calibrated too low by 8.0 dB. The calibration of the RASTA airborne cloud radar using direct comparisons with CloudSat agrees well with the expected gains and losses resulting from the change in configuration that required verification of the RASTA calibration.
Abstract
A quantitative assessment of Cloudsat reflectivities and basic ice cloud properties (cloud base, top, and thickness) is conducted in the present study from both airborne and ground-based observations. Airborne observations allow direct comparisons on a limited number of ocean backscatter and cloud samples, whereas the ground-based observations allow statistical comparisons on much longer time series but with some additional assumptions. Direct comparisons of the ocean backscatter and ice cloud reflectivities measured by an airborne cloud radar and Cloudsat during two field experiments indicate that, on average, Cloudsat measures ocean backscatter 0.4 dB higher and ice cloud reflectivities 1 dB higher than the airborne cloud radar. Five ground-based sites have also been used for a statistical evaluation of the Cloudsat reflectivities and basic cloud properties. From these comparisons, it is found that the weighted-mean difference Z Cloudsat − Z Ground ranges from −0.4 to +0.3 dB when a ±1-h time lag around the Cloudsat overpass is considered. Given the fact that the airborne and ground-based radar calibration accuracy is about 1 dB, it is concluded that the reflectivities of the spaceborne, airborne, and ground-based radars agree within the expected calibration uncertainties of the airborne and ground-based radars. This result shows that the Cloudsat radar does achieve the claimed sensitivity of around −29 dBZ. Finally, an evaluation of the tropical “convective ice” profiles measured by Cloudsat has been carried out over the tropical site in Darwin, Australia. It is shown that these profiles can be used statistically down to approximately 9-km height (or 4 km above the melting layer) without attenuation and multiple scattering corrections over Darwin. It is difficult to estimate if this result is applicable to all types of deep convective storms in the tropics. However, this first study suggests that the Cloudsat profiles in convective ice need to be corrected for attenuation by supercooled liquid water and ice aggregates/graupel particles and multiple scattering prior to their quantitative use.
Abstract
A quantitative assessment of Cloudsat reflectivities and basic ice cloud properties (cloud base, top, and thickness) is conducted in the present study from both airborne and ground-based observations. Airborne observations allow direct comparisons on a limited number of ocean backscatter and cloud samples, whereas the ground-based observations allow statistical comparisons on much longer time series but with some additional assumptions. Direct comparisons of the ocean backscatter and ice cloud reflectivities measured by an airborne cloud radar and Cloudsat during two field experiments indicate that, on average, Cloudsat measures ocean backscatter 0.4 dB higher and ice cloud reflectivities 1 dB higher than the airborne cloud radar. Five ground-based sites have also been used for a statistical evaluation of the Cloudsat reflectivities and basic cloud properties. From these comparisons, it is found that the weighted-mean difference Z Cloudsat − Z Ground ranges from −0.4 to +0.3 dB when a ±1-h time lag around the Cloudsat overpass is considered. Given the fact that the airborne and ground-based radar calibration accuracy is about 1 dB, it is concluded that the reflectivities of the spaceborne, airborne, and ground-based radars agree within the expected calibration uncertainties of the airborne and ground-based radars. This result shows that the Cloudsat radar does achieve the claimed sensitivity of around −29 dBZ. Finally, an evaluation of the tropical “convective ice” profiles measured by Cloudsat has been carried out over the tropical site in Darwin, Australia. It is shown that these profiles can be used statistically down to approximately 9-km height (or 4 km above the melting layer) without attenuation and multiple scattering corrections over Darwin. It is difficult to estimate if this result is applicable to all types of deep convective storms in the tropics. However, this first study suggests that the Cloudsat profiles in convective ice need to be corrected for attenuation by supercooled liquid water and ice aggregates/graupel particles and multiple scattering prior to their quantitative use.
Cloudnet
Continuous Evaluation of Cloud Profiles in Seven Operational Models Using Ground-Based Observations
The Cloudnet project aims to provide a systematic evaluation of clouds in forecast and climate models by comparing the model output with continuous ground-based observations of the vertical profiles of cloud properties. In the models, the properties of clouds are simplified and expressed in terms of the fraction of the model grid box, which is filled with cloud, together with the liquid and ice water content of the clouds. These models must get the clouds right if they are to correctly represent both their radiative properties and their key role in the production of precipitation, but there are few observations of the vertical profiles of the cloud properties that show whether or not they are successful. Cloud profiles derived from cloud radars, ceilometers, and dual-frequency microwave radiometers operated at three sites in France, Netherlands, and the United Kingdom for several years have been compared with the clouds in seven European models. The advantage of this continuous appraisal is that the feedback on how new versions of models are performing is provided in quasi-real time, as opposed to the much longer time scale needed for in-depth analysis of complex field studies. Here, two occasions are identified when the introduction of new versions of the ECMWF and Météo-France models leads to an immediate improvement in the representation of the clouds and also provides statistics on the performance of the seven models. The Cloudnet analysis scheme is currently being expanded to include sites outside Europe and further operational forecasting and climate models.
The Cloudnet project aims to provide a systematic evaluation of clouds in forecast and climate models by comparing the model output with continuous ground-based observations of the vertical profiles of cloud properties. In the models, the properties of clouds are simplified and expressed in terms of the fraction of the model grid box, which is filled with cloud, together with the liquid and ice water content of the clouds. These models must get the clouds right if they are to correctly represent both their radiative properties and their key role in the production of precipitation, but there are few observations of the vertical profiles of the cloud properties that show whether or not they are successful. Cloud profiles derived from cloud radars, ceilometers, and dual-frequency microwave radiometers operated at three sites in France, Netherlands, and the United Kingdom for several years have been compared with the clouds in seven European models. The advantage of this continuous appraisal is that the feedback on how new versions of models are performing is provided in quasi-real time, as opposed to the much longer time scale needed for in-depth analysis of complex field studies. Here, two occasions are identified when the introduction of new versions of the ECMWF and Météo-France models leads to an immediate improvement in the representation of the clouds and also provides statistics on the performance of the seven models. The Cloudnet analysis scheme is currently being expanded to include sites outside Europe and further operational forecasting and climate models.
