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Abstract
Current velocity from moored arrays of acoustic Doppler current profilers (ADCPs) deployed on the outer shelf and slope, south of Mobile Bay in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico, shows evidence of alongslope, generally westward-propagating subinertial baroclinic Kelvin waves with periods of about 16 and 21 days, amplitudes of 5–10 cm s−1, and wavelengths of about 500 km. The observed waves were highly coherent over the slope between about 200 and 500 m and accounted for a significant amount of the current variability below 200 m. The source of the waves could be attributed to effects of the Loop Current on the west Florida slope but is more likely due to direct forcing by Loop Current–generated eddies impacting the experimental area.
Abstract
Current velocity from moored arrays of acoustic Doppler current profilers (ADCPs) deployed on the outer shelf and slope, south of Mobile Bay in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico, shows evidence of alongslope, generally westward-propagating subinertial baroclinic Kelvin waves with periods of about 16 and 21 days, amplitudes of 5–10 cm s−1, and wavelengths of about 500 km. The observed waves were highly coherent over the slope between about 200 and 500 m and accounted for a significant amount of the current variability below 200 m. The source of the waves could be attributed to effects of the Loop Current on the west Florida slope but is more likely due to direct forcing by Loop Current–generated eddies impacting the experimental area.
Abstract
Breaking surface waves generate layers of bubble clouds as air parcels entrain into the upper ocean through the action of turbulent motions. The turbulent diffusivity in the bubble cloud layer is investigated by combining measurements of surface winds, waves, bubble acoustic backscatter, currents, and hydrography. These measurements were made at water depths of 60–90 m on the shelf of the Gulf of Alaska near Kayak Island during late December 2012, a period when the ocean was experiencing winds and significant wave heights up to 22 m s−1 and 9 m, respectively. Vertical profiles of acoustic backscatter decayed exponentially from the wave surface with e-folding lengths of about 0.6 to 6 m, while the bubble penetration depths were about 3 to 30 m. Both e-folding lengths and bubble depths were highly correlated with surface wind and wave conditions. The turbulent diffusion coefficients, inferred from e-folding length and bubble depth, varied from about 0.01 to 0.4 m2 s−1. Analysis suggests that the turbulent diffusivity in the bubble layer can be parameterized as a function of the cube of the wind friction velocity with a proportionality coefficient that depends weakly on wave age. Furthermore, in the bubble layer, on average, the shear production of the turbulent kinetic energy estimated by the diffusion coefficients is a similar order of magnitude as the dissipation rate predicted by the wall boundary layer theory.
Abstract
Breaking surface waves generate layers of bubble clouds as air parcels entrain into the upper ocean through the action of turbulent motions. The turbulent diffusivity in the bubble cloud layer is investigated by combining measurements of surface winds, waves, bubble acoustic backscatter, currents, and hydrography. These measurements were made at water depths of 60–90 m on the shelf of the Gulf of Alaska near Kayak Island during late December 2012, a period when the ocean was experiencing winds and significant wave heights up to 22 m s−1 and 9 m, respectively. Vertical profiles of acoustic backscatter decayed exponentially from the wave surface with e-folding lengths of about 0.6 to 6 m, while the bubble penetration depths were about 3 to 30 m. Both e-folding lengths and bubble depths were highly correlated with surface wind and wave conditions. The turbulent diffusion coefficients, inferred from e-folding length and bubble depth, varied from about 0.01 to 0.4 m2 s−1. Analysis suggests that the turbulent diffusivity in the bubble layer can be parameterized as a function of the cube of the wind friction velocity with a proportionality coefficient that depends weakly on wave age. Furthermore, in the bubble layer, on average, the shear production of the turbulent kinetic energy estimated by the diffusion coefficients is a similar order of magnitude as the dissipation rate predicted by the wall boundary layer theory.
Abstract
Hurricane Ivan passed directly over an array of 14 acoustic Doppler current profilers deployed along the outer continental shelf and upper slope in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico. Currents in excess of 200 cm s−1 were generated during this hurricane. Shelf currents followed Ekman dynamics with overlapping surface and bottom layers during Ivan’s approach and transitioned to a dominant surface boundary layer as the wind stress peaked. Slope currents at the onset of Ivan were wind driven near the surface, but deeper in the water column they were dominated during and after the passage of Ivan by subinertial waves with a period of 2–5 days that had several characteristics of topographic Rossby waves. Currents on the slope at 50 m and greater depths commonly exceeded 50 cm s−1. Surprisingly, the strongest currents were present to the left of the storm track on the shelf while more energetic currents were to the right of the hurricane path on the slope during the forced stage. Near-inertial motion lasting for a time period of about 10 days was excited by the storm on the shelf and slope. Record wave heights were measured near the eyewall of Hurricane Ivan and were shown not to be rogue waves. The large surface waves and strong near-bottom currents caused significant bottom scour on the outer shelf at water depths as deep as 90 m.
Abstract
Hurricane Ivan passed directly over an array of 14 acoustic Doppler current profilers deployed along the outer continental shelf and upper slope in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico. Currents in excess of 200 cm s−1 were generated during this hurricane. Shelf currents followed Ekman dynamics with overlapping surface and bottom layers during Ivan’s approach and transitioned to a dominant surface boundary layer as the wind stress peaked. Slope currents at the onset of Ivan were wind driven near the surface, but deeper in the water column they were dominated during and after the passage of Ivan by subinertial waves with a period of 2–5 days that had several characteristics of topographic Rossby waves. Currents on the slope at 50 m and greater depths commonly exceeded 50 cm s−1. Surprisingly, the strongest currents were present to the left of the storm track on the shelf while more energetic currents were to the right of the hurricane path on the slope during the forced stage. Near-inertial motion lasting for a time period of about 10 days was excited by the storm on the shelf and slope. Record wave heights were measured near the eyewall of Hurricane Ivan and were shown not to be rogue waves. The large surface waves and strong near-bottom currents caused significant bottom scour on the outer shelf at water depths as deep as 90 m.
Abstract
Several acoustic Doppler current profilers and vertical strings of temperature, conductivity, and pressure sensors, deployed on and around the East Flower Garden Bank (EFGB), were used to examine surface wave effects on high-frequency flows over the bank and to quantify spatial and temporal characteristic of these high-frequency flows. The EFGB, about 5-km wide and 10-km long, is located about 180-km southeast of Galveston, Texas, and consists of steep slopes on southern and eastern sides that rise from water depths over 100 m to within 20 m of the surface. Three-dimensional flows with frequencies ranging from 0.2 to 2 cycles per hour (cph) were observed in the mixed layer when wind speed and Stokes drift at the surface were large. These motions were stronger over the bank than outside the perimeter. The squared vertical velocity w 2 was strongest near the surface and decayed exponentially with depth, and the e-folding length of w 2 was 2 times larger than that of Stokes drift. The 2-h-averaged w 2 in the mixed layer, scaled by the squared friction velocity, was largest when the turbulent Langmuir number was less than unity and the mixed layer was shallow. It is suggested that Langmuir circulation is responsible for the generation of vertical flows in the mixed layer, and that the increase in kinetic energy is due to an enhancement of Stokes drift by wave focusing. The lack of agreement with open-ocean Langmuir scaling arguments is likely due to the enhanced kinetic energy by wave focusing.
Abstract
Several acoustic Doppler current profilers and vertical strings of temperature, conductivity, and pressure sensors, deployed on and around the East Flower Garden Bank (EFGB), were used to examine surface wave effects on high-frequency flows over the bank and to quantify spatial and temporal characteristic of these high-frequency flows. The EFGB, about 5-km wide and 10-km long, is located about 180-km southeast of Galveston, Texas, and consists of steep slopes on southern and eastern sides that rise from water depths over 100 m to within 20 m of the surface. Three-dimensional flows with frequencies ranging from 0.2 to 2 cycles per hour (cph) were observed in the mixed layer when wind speed and Stokes drift at the surface were large. These motions were stronger over the bank than outside the perimeter. The squared vertical velocity w 2 was strongest near the surface and decayed exponentially with depth, and the e-folding length of w 2 was 2 times larger than that of Stokes drift. The 2-h-averaged w 2 in the mixed layer, scaled by the squared friction velocity, was largest when the turbulent Langmuir number was less than unity and the mixed layer was shallow. It is suggested that Langmuir circulation is responsible for the generation of vertical flows in the mixed layer, and that the increase in kinetic energy is due to an enhancement of Stokes drift by wave focusing. The lack of agreement with open-ocean Langmuir scaling arguments is likely due to the enhanced kinetic energy by wave focusing.
Abstract
Pressure differences across topography generate a form drag that opposes the flow in the water column, and viscous and pressure forces acting on roughness elements of the topographic surface generate a frictional drag on the bottom. Form drag and bottom roughness lengths were estimated over the East Flower Garden Bank (EFGB) in the Gulf of Mexico by combining an array of bottom pressure measurements and profiles of velocity and turbulent kinetic dissipation rates. The EFGB is a coral bank about 6 km wide and 10 km long located at the shelf edge that rises from 100-m water depth to about 18 m below the sea surface. The average frictional drag coefficient over the entire bank was estimated as 0.006 using roughness lengths that ranged from 0.001 cm for relatively smooth portions of the bank to 1–10 cm for very rough portions over the corals. The measured form drag over the bank showed multiple time-scale variability. Diurnal tides and low-frequency motions with periods ranging from 4 to 17 days generated form drags of about 2000 N m−1 with average drag coefficients ranging between 0.03 and 0.22, which are a factor of 5–35 times larger than the average frictional drag coefficient. Both linear wave and quadratic drag laws have similarities with the observed form drag. The form drag is an important flow retardation mechanism even in the presence of the large frictional drag associated with coral reefs and requires parameterization.
Abstract
Pressure differences across topography generate a form drag that opposes the flow in the water column, and viscous and pressure forces acting on roughness elements of the topographic surface generate a frictional drag on the bottom. Form drag and bottom roughness lengths were estimated over the East Flower Garden Bank (EFGB) in the Gulf of Mexico by combining an array of bottom pressure measurements and profiles of velocity and turbulent kinetic dissipation rates. The EFGB is a coral bank about 6 km wide and 10 km long located at the shelf edge that rises from 100-m water depth to about 18 m below the sea surface. The average frictional drag coefficient over the entire bank was estimated as 0.006 using roughness lengths that ranged from 0.001 cm for relatively smooth portions of the bank to 1–10 cm for very rough portions over the corals. The measured form drag over the bank showed multiple time-scale variability. Diurnal tides and low-frequency motions with periods ranging from 4 to 17 days generated form drags of about 2000 N m−1 with average drag coefficients ranging between 0.03 and 0.22, which are a factor of 5–35 times larger than the average frictional drag coefficient. Both linear wave and quadratic drag laws have similarities with the observed form drag. The form drag is an important flow retardation mechanism even in the presence of the large frictional drag associated with coral reefs and requires parameterization.
Abstract
Momentum transport by energy-containing turbulent eddies in the oceanic mixed layer were investigated during high-wind events in the northern Gulf of Alaska off Kayak Island. Sixteen high-wind events with magnitudes ranging from 7 to 22 m s−1 were examined. Winds from the southeast prevailed from one to several days with significant wave heights of 5–9 m and turbulent Langmuir numbers of about 0.2–0.4. Surface buoyancy forcing was much weaker than the wind stress forcing. The water column was well mixed to the bottom depth of about 73 m. Spectral analyses indicate that a major part of the turbulent momentum flux was concentrated on 10–30-min time scales. The ratio of horizontal scale to mixed layer depth was from 2 to 8. Turbulent shear stresses in the mixed layer were horizontally asymmetric. The downwind turbulent stress at 10–20 m below the surface was approximately 40% of the averaged wind stress and was reduced to 5%–10% of the wind stress near the bottom. Turbulent kinetic energy in the crosswind direction was 30% larger than in the downwind direction and an order of magnitude larger than the vertical component. The averaged eddy viscosity between 10- and 30-m depth was ~0.1 m2 s−1, decreased with depth rapidly below 50 m, and was ~5 × 10−3 m2 s−1 at 5 m above the bottom. The divergence of turbulent shear stress accelerated the flow during the early stages of wind events before Coriolis and pressure gradient forces became important.
Abstract
Momentum transport by energy-containing turbulent eddies in the oceanic mixed layer were investigated during high-wind events in the northern Gulf of Alaska off Kayak Island. Sixteen high-wind events with magnitudes ranging from 7 to 22 m s−1 were examined. Winds from the southeast prevailed from one to several days with significant wave heights of 5–9 m and turbulent Langmuir numbers of about 0.2–0.4. Surface buoyancy forcing was much weaker than the wind stress forcing. The water column was well mixed to the bottom depth of about 73 m. Spectral analyses indicate that a major part of the turbulent momentum flux was concentrated on 10–30-min time scales. The ratio of horizontal scale to mixed layer depth was from 2 to 8. Turbulent shear stresses in the mixed layer were horizontally asymmetric. The downwind turbulent stress at 10–20 m below the surface was approximately 40% of the averaged wind stress and was reduced to 5%–10% of the wind stress near the bottom. Turbulent kinetic energy in the crosswind direction was 30% larger than in the downwind direction and an order of magnitude larger than the vertical component. The averaged eddy viscosity between 10- and 30-m depth was ~0.1 m2 s−1, decreased with depth rapidly below 50 m, and was ~5 × 10−3 m2 s−1 at 5 m above the bottom. The divergence of turbulent shear stress accelerated the flow during the early stages of wind events before Coriolis and pressure gradient forces became important.
Abstract
Long-term measurements of turbulent kinetic energy dissipation rate (ε), and turbulent temperature variance dissipation rate (χ T ) in the thermocline, along with currents, temperature, and salinity were made at two subsurface moorings in the southern Bay of Bengal (BoB). This is a part of a major international program, conducted between July 2018 and June 2019, for investigating the role of the BoB on the monsoon intraseasonal oscillations. One mooring was located on the typical path of the Southwest Monsoon Current (SMC), and the other was in a region where the Sri Lanka dome is typically found during the summer monsoon. Microstructure and finescale estimates of vertical diffusivity revealed the long-term subthermocline mixing patterns in the southern BoB. Enhanced turbulence and large eddy diffusivities were observed within the SMC during the passage of a subsurface-intensified anticyclonic eddy. During this time, background shear and strain appeared to influence high-frequency motions such as near-inertial waves and internal tides, leading to increased mixing. Near the Sri Lanka dome, enhanced dissipation occurred at the margins of the cyclonic feature. Turbulent mixing was enhanced with the passage of Rossby waves and eddies. During these events, values of χ T exceeding 10−4 °C2 s−1 were recorded concurrently with ε values exceeding 10−5 W kg−1. Inferred diffusivity peaked well above background values of 10−6 m2 s−1, leading to an annually averaged diffusivity near 10−4 m2 s−1. Turbulence appeared low throughout much of the deployment period. Most of the mixing occurred in spurts during isolated events.
Abstract
Long-term measurements of turbulent kinetic energy dissipation rate (ε), and turbulent temperature variance dissipation rate (χ T ) in the thermocline, along with currents, temperature, and salinity were made at two subsurface moorings in the southern Bay of Bengal (BoB). This is a part of a major international program, conducted between July 2018 and June 2019, for investigating the role of the BoB on the monsoon intraseasonal oscillations. One mooring was located on the typical path of the Southwest Monsoon Current (SMC), and the other was in a region where the Sri Lanka dome is typically found during the summer monsoon. Microstructure and finescale estimates of vertical diffusivity revealed the long-term subthermocline mixing patterns in the southern BoB. Enhanced turbulence and large eddy diffusivities were observed within the SMC during the passage of a subsurface-intensified anticyclonic eddy. During this time, background shear and strain appeared to influence high-frequency motions such as near-inertial waves and internal tides, leading to increased mixing. Near the Sri Lanka dome, enhanced dissipation occurred at the margins of the cyclonic feature. Turbulent mixing was enhanced with the passage of Rossby waves and eddies. During these events, values of χ T exceeding 10−4 °C2 s−1 were recorded concurrently with ε values exceeding 10−5 W kg−1. Inferred diffusivity peaked well above background values of 10−6 m2 s−1, leading to an annually averaged diffusivity near 10−4 m2 s−1. Turbulence appeared low throughout much of the deployment period. Most of the mixing occurred in spurts during isolated events.
Abstract
High-resolution currents and hydrographic fields were measured at six deep-water moorings in the southern Bay of Bengal (BoB) by the Naval Research Laboratory as part of an international effort focused on the dynamics of the Indian Ocean. Currents, temperature, and salinity were sampled over the upper 500 m for 20 months between December 2013 and August 2015. One of the major goals is to understand the space–time scales of the currents and physical processes that contribute to the exchange of water between the BoB and the Arabian Sea. The observations captured Southwest and Northeast Monsoon Currents, seasonally varying large eddies including a cyclonic eddy, the Sri Lanka dome (SLD), and an anticyclonic eddy southeast of the SLD. The observations further showed intraseasonal oscillations with periods of 30–70 days, near-inertial currents, and tides. Monthly averaged velocities commonly exceeded 50 cm s−1 near the surface, and extreme velocities exceeded 150 cm s−1 during the southwest monsoon. Tides were small and dominated by the M2 component with velocities of about 3 cm s−1. The average transport into the BoB over the measurement period was 2 Sv (1 Sv ≡ 106 m3 s−1) but likely exceeded 15 Sv during summer of 2014. This study suggests the water exchange away from coastal boundaries, in the interior of the BoB, may be largely influenced by the location and strength of the two eddies that modify the path of the Southwest Monsoon Current. In addition, there is a pathway below 200 m for transport of water into the BoB throughout the year.
Abstract
High-resolution currents and hydrographic fields were measured at six deep-water moorings in the southern Bay of Bengal (BoB) by the Naval Research Laboratory as part of an international effort focused on the dynamics of the Indian Ocean. Currents, temperature, and salinity were sampled over the upper 500 m for 20 months between December 2013 and August 2015. One of the major goals is to understand the space–time scales of the currents and physical processes that contribute to the exchange of water between the BoB and the Arabian Sea. The observations captured Southwest and Northeast Monsoon Currents, seasonally varying large eddies including a cyclonic eddy, the Sri Lanka dome (SLD), and an anticyclonic eddy southeast of the SLD. The observations further showed intraseasonal oscillations with periods of 30–70 days, near-inertial currents, and tides. Monthly averaged velocities commonly exceeded 50 cm s−1 near the surface, and extreme velocities exceeded 150 cm s−1 during the southwest monsoon. Tides were small and dominated by the M2 component with velocities of about 3 cm s−1. The average transport into the BoB over the measurement period was 2 Sv (1 Sv ≡ 106 m3 s−1) but likely exceeded 15 Sv during summer of 2014. This study suggests the water exchange away from coastal boundaries, in the interior of the BoB, may be largely influenced by the location and strength of the two eddies that modify the path of the Southwest Monsoon Current. In addition, there is a pathway below 200 m for transport of water into the BoB throughout the year.
Abstract
The formation of a sharp oceanic front located south-southeast of Sri Lanka during the southwest monsoon is examined through in situ and remote observations and high-resolution model output. Remote sensing and model output reveal that the front extends approximately 200 km eastward from the southeast coast of Sri Lanka toward the southern Bay of Bengal (BoB). This annually occurring front is associated with the boundary between the southwest monsoon current with high-salinity water to the south, and a weak flow field comprised of relatively fresh BoB water to the north. The front contains a line of high chlorophyll extending from the coastal upwelling zone, often for several hundred kilometers. Elevated turbulent diffusivities ∼10−2 m2 s−1 along with large diapycnal fluxes of heat and salt were found within the front. The formation of the front and vertical transports are linked to local wind stress curl. Large vertical velocities (∼50 m day−1) indicate the importance of ageostrophic, submesoscale processes. To examine these processes, the Ertel potential vorticity (PV) was computed using the observations and numerical model output. The model output shows a ribbon of negative PV along the front between the coastal upwelling zone and two eddies (Sri Lanka Dome and an anticyclonic eddy) typically found in the southern BoB. PV estimates support the view that the flow is susceptible to submesoscale instabilities, which in turn generate high vertical velocities within the front. Frontal upwelling and heightened mixing show that the seasonal front is regionally important to linking the fresh surface water of the BoB with the Arabian Sea.
Significance Statement
Within the ocean, motions span extraordinarily wide ranges of sizes and time scales. In this study we focus on a narrow, intensified feature called a front. This front occurs in the southern Bay of Bengal during the summer monsoon and forms a boundary between fresher water to the north and saltier water to the south. Features such as this are difficult to study, however, by combining observations made from ships and satellites with output from numerical models of the ocean, we are able to better understand the front. This is important because fronts like the one studied here play a role in determining the pathways of heat within the ocean, which, in turn, may feedback into the atmosphere and weather patterns.
Abstract
The formation of a sharp oceanic front located south-southeast of Sri Lanka during the southwest monsoon is examined through in situ and remote observations and high-resolution model output. Remote sensing and model output reveal that the front extends approximately 200 km eastward from the southeast coast of Sri Lanka toward the southern Bay of Bengal (BoB). This annually occurring front is associated with the boundary between the southwest monsoon current with high-salinity water to the south, and a weak flow field comprised of relatively fresh BoB water to the north. The front contains a line of high chlorophyll extending from the coastal upwelling zone, often for several hundred kilometers. Elevated turbulent diffusivities ∼10−2 m2 s−1 along with large diapycnal fluxes of heat and salt were found within the front. The formation of the front and vertical transports are linked to local wind stress curl. Large vertical velocities (∼50 m day−1) indicate the importance of ageostrophic, submesoscale processes. To examine these processes, the Ertel potential vorticity (PV) was computed using the observations and numerical model output. The model output shows a ribbon of negative PV along the front between the coastal upwelling zone and two eddies (Sri Lanka Dome and an anticyclonic eddy) typically found in the southern BoB. PV estimates support the view that the flow is susceptible to submesoscale instabilities, which in turn generate high vertical velocities within the front. Frontal upwelling and heightened mixing show that the seasonal front is regionally important to linking the fresh surface water of the BoB with the Arabian Sea.
Significance Statement
Within the ocean, motions span extraordinarily wide ranges of sizes and time scales. In this study we focus on a narrow, intensified feature called a front. This front occurs in the southern Bay of Bengal during the summer monsoon and forms a boundary between fresher water to the north and saltier water to the south. Features such as this are difficult to study, however, by combining observations made from ships and satellites with output from numerical models of the ocean, we are able to better understand the front. This is important because fronts like the one studied here play a role in determining the pathways of heat within the ocean, which, in turn, may feedback into the atmosphere and weather patterns.
The Second Global Soil Wetness Project (GSWP-2) is an initiative to compare and evaluate 10-year simulations by a broad range of land surface models under controlled conditions. A major product of GSWP-2 is the first global gridded multimodel analysis of land surface state variables and fluxes for use by meteorologists, hydrologists, engineers, biogeochemists, agronomists, botanists, ecologists, geographers, climatologists, and educators. Simulations by 13 land models from five nations have gone into production of the analysis. The models are driven by forcing data derived from a combination of gridded atmospheric reanalyses and observations. The resulting analysis consists of multimodel means and standard deviations on the monthly time scale, including profiles of soil moisture and temperature at six levels, as well as daily and climatological (mean annual cycle) fields for over 50 land surface variables. The monthly standard deviations provide a measure of model agreement that may be used as a quality metric. An overview of key characteristics of the analysis is presented here, along with information on obtaining the data.
The Second Global Soil Wetness Project (GSWP-2) is an initiative to compare and evaluate 10-year simulations by a broad range of land surface models under controlled conditions. A major product of GSWP-2 is the first global gridded multimodel analysis of land surface state variables and fluxes for use by meteorologists, hydrologists, engineers, biogeochemists, agronomists, botanists, ecologists, geographers, climatologists, and educators. Simulations by 13 land models from five nations have gone into production of the analysis. The models are driven by forcing data derived from a combination of gridded atmospheric reanalyses and observations. The resulting analysis consists of multimodel means and standard deviations on the monthly time scale, including profiles of soil moisture and temperature at six levels, as well as daily and climatological (mean annual cycle) fields for over 50 land surface variables. The monthly standard deviations provide a measure of model agreement that may be used as a quality metric. An overview of key characteristics of the analysis is presented here, along with information on obtaining the data.
