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- Author or Editor: E. R. Pardyjak x
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Abstract
Data obtained in downtown Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, during the Joint Urban 2003 atmospheric dispersion study have been analyzed to investigate the effects of upstream atmospheric stability on turbulence statistics in an urban core. The data presented include turbulent heat and momentum fluxes at various vertical and horizontal locations in the lower 30% of the street canyon. These data have been segregated into three broad stability classification regimes: stable (z/L > 0.2), neutral (−0.2 < z/L < 0.2), and unstable (z/L < −0.2) based on upstream measurements of the Monin–Obukhov length scale L. Most of the momentum-related turbulence statistics were insensitive to upstream atmospheric stability, while the energy-related statistics (potential temperatures and kinematic heat fluxes) were more sensitive. In particular, the local turbulence intensity inside the street canyon varied little with atmospheric stability but always had large magnitudes. Measurements of turbulent momentum fluxes indicate the existence of regions of upward transport of high horizontal momentum fluid near the ground that is associated with low-level jet structures for all stabilities. The turbulent kinetic energy normalized by a local shear stress velocity collapses the data well and shows a clear repeatable pattern that appears to be stability invariant. The magnitude of the normalized turbulent kinetic energy increases rapidly as the ground is approached. This behavior is a result of a much more rapid drop in the correlation between the horizontal and vertical velocities than in the velocity variances. This lack of correlation in the turbulent momentum fluxes is consistent with previous work in the literature. It was also observed that the mean potential temperatures almost always decrease with increasing height in the street canyon and that the vertical heat fluxes are always positive regardless of upstream atmospheric stability. In addition, mean potential temperature profiles are slightly more unstable during the unstable periods than during the neutral or stable periods. The magnitudes of all three components of the heat flux and the variability of the heat fluxes decrease with increasing atmospheric stability. In addition, the cross-canyon and along-canyon heat fluxes are as large as the vertical component of the heat fluxes in the lower portion of the canyon.
Abstract
Data obtained in downtown Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, during the Joint Urban 2003 atmospheric dispersion study have been analyzed to investigate the effects of upstream atmospheric stability on turbulence statistics in an urban core. The data presented include turbulent heat and momentum fluxes at various vertical and horizontal locations in the lower 30% of the street canyon. These data have been segregated into three broad stability classification regimes: stable (z/L > 0.2), neutral (−0.2 < z/L < 0.2), and unstable (z/L < −0.2) based on upstream measurements of the Monin–Obukhov length scale L. Most of the momentum-related turbulence statistics were insensitive to upstream atmospheric stability, while the energy-related statistics (potential temperatures and kinematic heat fluxes) were more sensitive. In particular, the local turbulence intensity inside the street canyon varied little with atmospheric stability but always had large magnitudes. Measurements of turbulent momentum fluxes indicate the existence of regions of upward transport of high horizontal momentum fluid near the ground that is associated with low-level jet structures for all stabilities. The turbulent kinetic energy normalized by a local shear stress velocity collapses the data well and shows a clear repeatable pattern that appears to be stability invariant. The magnitude of the normalized turbulent kinetic energy increases rapidly as the ground is approached. This behavior is a result of a much more rapid drop in the correlation between the horizontal and vertical velocities than in the velocity variances. This lack of correlation in the turbulent momentum fluxes is consistent with previous work in the literature. It was also observed that the mean potential temperatures almost always decrease with increasing height in the street canyon and that the vertical heat fluxes are always positive regardless of upstream atmospheric stability. In addition, mean potential temperature profiles are slightly more unstable during the unstable periods than during the neutral or stable periods. The magnitudes of all three components of the heat flux and the variability of the heat fluxes decrease with increasing atmospheric stability. In addition, the cross-canyon and along-canyon heat fluxes are as large as the vertical component of the heat fluxes in the lower portion of the canyon.
Abstract
Velocity data were obtained within Park Avenue in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, using three-dimensional sonic anemometers under unstable atmospheric conditions. These data are used to produce velocity spectra, cospectra, and weighted joint probability density functions at various heights and horizontal locations in the street canyon. This analysis has helped to describe a number of physically interesting urban flow phenomena. Previous research has shown that the ratio of Reynolds shear stresses to normal stresses is typically much smaller deep within the canopy than those ratios found at the top of canopy and in the roughness sublayer. The turbulence in this region exhibits significant contributions to all four quadrants of a weighted joint-probability density function of horizontal and vertical velocity fluctuations, yielding the characteristic small Reynolds shear stresses in the flow. The velocity cospectra measured at the base of the canopy show evidence of discrete frequency bands of both positive and negative correlation that yield a small correlation, as indicated by the Reynolds shear stresses. Two major peaks were often observed in the spectra and cospectra: a low-frequency peak that appears to be associated with vortex shedding off the buildings and a midfrequency peak generally associated with canyon geometry. The low-frequency peak was found to produce a countergradient contribution to the along-wind vertical velocity covariance. Standard spectral tests for local isotropy indicate that isotropic conditions occur at different frequencies depending on spatial location, demonstrating the need to be thorough when testing for local isotropy with the urban canopy.
Abstract
Velocity data were obtained within Park Avenue in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, using three-dimensional sonic anemometers under unstable atmospheric conditions. These data are used to produce velocity spectra, cospectra, and weighted joint probability density functions at various heights and horizontal locations in the street canyon. This analysis has helped to describe a number of physically interesting urban flow phenomena. Previous research has shown that the ratio of Reynolds shear stresses to normal stresses is typically much smaller deep within the canopy than those ratios found at the top of canopy and in the roughness sublayer. The turbulence in this region exhibits significant contributions to all four quadrants of a weighted joint-probability density function of horizontal and vertical velocity fluctuations, yielding the characteristic small Reynolds shear stresses in the flow. The velocity cospectra measured at the base of the canopy show evidence of discrete frequency bands of both positive and negative correlation that yield a small correlation, as indicated by the Reynolds shear stresses. Two major peaks were often observed in the spectra and cospectra: a low-frequency peak that appears to be associated with vortex shedding off the buildings and a midfrequency peak generally associated with canyon geometry. The low-frequency peak was found to produce a countergradient contribution to the along-wind vertical velocity covariance. Standard spectral tests for local isotropy indicate that isotropic conditions occur at different frequencies depending on spatial location, demonstrating the need to be thorough when testing for local isotropy with the urban canopy.
Abstract
Velocity data were obtained from sonic anemometer measurements within an east–west-running street canyon located in the urban core of Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, during the Joint Urban 2003 field campaign. These data were used to explore the directional dependence of the mean flow and turbulence within a real-world street canyon. The along-canyon vortex that is a key characteristic of idealized street canyon studies was not evident in the mean wind data, although the sensor placement was not optimized for the detection of such structures. Instead, surface wind measurements imply that regions of horizontal convergence and divergence exist within the canopy, which are likely caused by taller buildings diverting the winds aloft down into the canopy. The details of these processes appear to be dependent on relatively small perturbations in the prevailing wind direction. Turbulence intensities within the canyon interior appeared to have more dependence on prevailing wind direction than they did in the intersections. Turbulence in the intersections tended to be higher than was observed in the canyon interior. This behavior implies that there are some fundamental differences between the flow structure found in North American–style cities where building heights are typically heterogeneous and that found in European-style cities, which generally have more homogeneous building heights. It is hypothesized that the greater three-dimensionality caused by the heterogeneous building heights increases the ventilation of the urban canopy through mean advective transport as well as enhanced turbulence.
Abstract
Velocity data were obtained from sonic anemometer measurements within an east–west-running street canyon located in the urban core of Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, during the Joint Urban 2003 field campaign. These data were used to explore the directional dependence of the mean flow and turbulence within a real-world street canyon. The along-canyon vortex that is a key characteristic of idealized street canyon studies was not evident in the mean wind data, although the sensor placement was not optimized for the detection of such structures. Instead, surface wind measurements imply that regions of horizontal convergence and divergence exist within the canopy, which are likely caused by taller buildings diverting the winds aloft down into the canopy. The details of these processes appear to be dependent on relatively small perturbations in the prevailing wind direction. Turbulence intensities within the canyon interior appeared to have more dependence on prevailing wind direction than they did in the intersections. Turbulence in the intersections tended to be higher than was observed in the canyon interior. This behavior implies that there are some fundamental differences between the flow structure found in North American–style cities where building heights are typically heterogeneous and that found in European-style cities, which generally have more homogeneous building heights. It is hypothesized that the greater three-dimensionality caused by the heterogeneous building heights increases the ventilation of the urban canopy through mean advective transport as well as enhanced turbulence.
Abstract
Simulations of local weather and air quality in urban areas must account for processes spanning from meso- to microscales, including turbulence and transport within the urban canopy layer. Here, the authors investigate the performance of the building-resolving Quick Urban Industrial Complex (QUIC) Dispersion Modeling System driven with mean wind profiles from the mesoscale Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) Model. Dispersion simulations are performed for intensive observation periods 2 and 8 of the Joint Urban 2003 field experiment conducted in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, using an ensemble of expert-derived wind profiles from observational data as well as profiles derived from WRF runs. The results suggest that WRF can be used successfully as a source of inflow boundary conditions for urban simulations, without the collection and processing of intensive field observations needed to produce expert-derived wind profiles. Detailed statistical analysis of tracer concentration fields suggests that, for the purpose of the urban dispersion, WRF simulations provide wind forcing as good as individual or ensemble expert-derived profiles. Despite problems capturing the strength and the elevation of the Great Plains low-level jet, the WRF-simulated near-surface wind speed and direction were close to observations, thus assuring realistic forcing for urban dispersion estimates. Tests performed with multilayer and bulk urban parameterizations embedded in WRF did not provide any conclusive evidence of the superiority of one scheme over the other, although the dispersion simulations driven by the latter showed slightly better results.
Abstract
Simulations of local weather and air quality in urban areas must account for processes spanning from meso- to microscales, including turbulence and transport within the urban canopy layer. Here, the authors investigate the performance of the building-resolving Quick Urban Industrial Complex (QUIC) Dispersion Modeling System driven with mean wind profiles from the mesoscale Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) Model. Dispersion simulations are performed for intensive observation periods 2 and 8 of the Joint Urban 2003 field experiment conducted in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, using an ensemble of expert-derived wind profiles from observational data as well as profiles derived from WRF runs. The results suggest that WRF can be used successfully as a source of inflow boundary conditions for urban simulations, without the collection and processing of intensive field observations needed to produce expert-derived wind profiles. Detailed statistical analysis of tracer concentration fields suggests that, for the purpose of the urban dispersion, WRF simulations provide wind forcing as good as individual or ensemble expert-derived profiles. Despite problems capturing the strength and the elevation of the Great Plains low-level jet, the WRF-simulated near-surface wind speed and direction were close to observations, thus assuring realistic forcing for urban dispersion estimates. Tests performed with multilayer and bulk urban parameterizations embedded in WRF did not provide any conclusive evidence of the superiority of one scheme over the other, although the dispersion simulations driven by the latter showed slightly better results.
Abstract
A better understanding of the interaction between the built environment and the atmosphere is required to more effectively manage urban airsheds. This paper reports an analysis of data from an atmospheric measurement campaign in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, during the summer of 2003 that shows wind flow patterns, turbulence, and thermal effects in the downtown area. Experimental measurements within a street canyon yielded airflow patterns, stability conditions, and turbulence properties as a function of the incoming wind direction and time of the day. Air and surface temperatures at two different sites, one within the downtown urban canyon and the other in a nearby park, were measured. A study of the stability conditions within the urban canyon during the campaign indicates that dynamically stable conditions did not occur within the canyon. This provides evidence that the built environment can strongly influence the thermal characteristics in cities. Mean flow patterns close to the street level are analyzed for two different ranges of incoming wind directions and are compared with those obtained from a previous field experiment featuring idealized building configurations. This paper presents an approach allowing the estimation of wind direction in an urban canyon, given inflow conditions, that shows good agreement with wind patterns in the Oklahoma City street canyon. Turbulence statistics were calculated and normalized using different velocity scales to investigate the efficacy of the latter in specifying turbulence levels in urban canopies. The dependence of turbulence quantities on incoming wind direction and time of the day was investigated.
Abstract
A better understanding of the interaction between the built environment and the atmosphere is required to more effectively manage urban airsheds. This paper reports an analysis of data from an atmospheric measurement campaign in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, during the summer of 2003 that shows wind flow patterns, turbulence, and thermal effects in the downtown area. Experimental measurements within a street canyon yielded airflow patterns, stability conditions, and turbulence properties as a function of the incoming wind direction and time of the day. Air and surface temperatures at two different sites, one within the downtown urban canyon and the other in a nearby park, were measured. A study of the stability conditions within the urban canyon during the campaign indicates that dynamically stable conditions did not occur within the canyon. This provides evidence that the built environment can strongly influence the thermal characteristics in cities. Mean flow patterns close to the street level are analyzed for two different ranges of incoming wind directions and are compared with those obtained from a previous field experiment featuring idealized building configurations. This paper presents an approach allowing the estimation of wind direction in an urban canyon, given inflow conditions, that shows good agreement with wind patterns in the Oklahoma City street canyon. Turbulence statistics were calculated and normalized using different velocity scales to investigate the efficacy of the latter in specifying turbulence levels in urban canopies. The dependence of turbulence quantities on incoming wind direction and time of the day was investigated.
Abstract
Measurements were conducted on an eastern slope of the Salt Lake Basin (SLB) as a part of the Vertical Transport and Mixing Experiment (VTMX) conducted in October 2000. Of interest was the nocturnal boundary layer on a slope (in particular, katabatic flows) in the absence of significant synoptic influence. Extensive measurements of mean flow, turbulence, temperature, and solar radiation were made, from which circulation patterns on the slope and the nature of stratified turbulence in katabatic winds were inferred. The results show that near the surface (<25–50 m) the nocturnal flow is highly stratified and directed downslope, but at higher levels winds strongly vary in magnitude and direction with height and time, implying the domination of upper levels by air intrusions. These intrusions may peel off from different slopes surrounding the SLB, have different densities, and flow at their equilibrium density levels. The turbulence was generally weak and continuous, but sudden increases of turbulence levels were detected as the mean gradient Richardson number (
Abstract
Measurements were conducted on an eastern slope of the Salt Lake Basin (SLB) as a part of the Vertical Transport and Mixing Experiment (VTMX) conducted in October 2000. Of interest was the nocturnal boundary layer on a slope (in particular, katabatic flows) in the absence of significant synoptic influence. Extensive measurements of mean flow, turbulence, temperature, and solar radiation were made, from which circulation patterns on the slope and the nature of stratified turbulence in katabatic winds were inferred. The results show that near the surface (<25–50 m) the nocturnal flow is highly stratified and directed downslope, but at higher levels winds strongly vary in magnitude and direction with height and time, implying the domination of upper levels by air intrusions. These intrusions may peel off from different slopes surrounding the SLB, have different densities, and flow at their equilibrium density levels. The turbulence was generally weak and continuous, but sudden increases of turbulence levels were detected as the mean gradient Richardson number (
Abstract
Past research has suggested that the evening transition in complex topography typically has several main features, such as (a) continued weak upslope flows persisting 3–5 h after sunset (if the sidewalls of the valley prevent Coriolis-induced turning of winds), thus signifying delayed transition; (b) unsteady local stagnation and vertical mixing within tens of meters above the surface; and (c) transition of stagnation fronts to downslope/downvalley gravity currents during the evening hours, especially at higher-elevation (steeper) slopes, and their arrival at adjoining low-elevation gentle slopes as “slope breezes.” This transition process typically occurs in locales such as Phoenix, Arizona, which has expansive exposure to plains in one direction (to the west and south) and is adjacent to abrupt change in the terrain in other directions (primarily to the north and east). An analysis of wind records from several automated weather stations and a radar wind profiler for selected characteristic periods representing all four seasons and data from a previous major field campaign in the greater Phoenix valley illustrate (i) the shallow nature of transition flows that develop on a year-round basis during frequent clear, calm nights in the desert Southwest and their seasonal sensitivity; (ii) a spatial variation of transition times relative to the only first-order National Weather Service station in the region (Sky Harbor International Airport); (iii) the dependence of transition time (and hence the delay of transition) on the exposure, the elevation, and the magnitude of slope; and (iv) a possible heat-island influence. These observations are quantified using theoretical estimates, and the results are placed in the context of multiscale flows in urban basins.
Abstract
Past research has suggested that the evening transition in complex topography typically has several main features, such as (a) continued weak upslope flows persisting 3–5 h after sunset (if the sidewalls of the valley prevent Coriolis-induced turning of winds), thus signifying delayed transition; (b) unsteady local stagnation and vertical mixing within tens of meters above the surface; and (c) transition of stagnation fronts to downslope/downvalley gravity currents during the evening hours, especially at higher-elevation (steeper) slopes, and their arrival at adjoining low-elevation gentle slopes as “slope breezes.” This transition process typically occurs in locales such as Phoenix, Arizona, which has expansive exposure to plains in one direction (to the west and south) and is adjacent to abrupt change in the terrain in other directions (primarily to the north and east). An analysis of wind records from several automated weather stations and a radar wind profiler for selected characteristic periods representing all four seasons and data from a previous major field campaign in the greater Phoenix valley illustrate (i) the shallow nature of transition flows that develop on a year-round basis during frequent clear, calm nights in the desert Southwest and their seasonal sensitivity; (ii) a spatial variation of transition times relative to the only first-order National Weather Service station in the region (Sky Harbor International Airport); (iii) the dependence of transition time (and hence the delay of transition) on the exposure, the elevation, and the magnitude of slope; and (iv) a possible heat-island influence. These observations are quantified using theoretical estimates, and the results are placed in the context of multiscale flows in urban basins.
Abstract
C-FOG is a comprehensive bi-national project dealing with the formation, persistence, and dissipation (life cycle) of fog in coastal areas (coastal fog) controlled by land, marine, and atmospheric processes. Given its inherent complexity, coastal-fog literature has mainly focused on case studies, and there is a continuing need for research that integrates across processes (e.g., air–sea–land interactions, environmental flow, aerosol transport, and chemistry), dynamics (two-phase flow and turbulence), microphysics (nucleation, droplet characterization), and thermodynamics (heat transfer and phase changes) through field observations and modeling. Central to C-FOG was a field campaign in eastern Canada from 1 September to 8 October 2018, covering four land sites in Newfoundland and Nova Scotia and an adjacent coastal strip transected by the Research Vessel Hugh R. Sharp. An array of in situ, path-integrating, and remote sensing instruments gathered data across a swath of space–time scales relevant to fog life cycle. Satellite and reanalysis products, routine meteorological observations, numerical weather prediction model (WRF and COAMPS) outputs, large-eddy simulations, and phenomenological modeling underpin the interpretation of field observations in a multiscale and multiplatform framework that helps identify and remedy numerical model deficiencies. An overview of the C-FOG field campaign and some preliminary analysis/findings are presented in this paper.
Abstract
C-FOG is a comprehensive bi-national project dealing with the formation, persistence, and dissipation (life cycle) of fog in coastal areas (coastal fog) controlled by land, marine, and atmospheric processes. Given its inherent complexity, coastal-fog literature has mainly focused on case studies, and there is a continuing need for research that integrates across processes (e.g., air–sea–land interactions, environmental flow, aerosol transport, and chemistry), dynamics (two-phase flow and turbulence), microphysics (nucleation, droplet characterization), and thermodynamics (heat transfer and phase changes) through field observations and modeling. Central to C-FOG was a field campaign in eastern Canada from 1 September to 8 October 2018, covering four land sites in Newfoundland and Nova Scotia and an adjacent coastal strip transected by the Research Vessel Hugh R. Sharp. An array of in situ, path-integrating, and remote sensing instruments gathered data across a swath of space–time scales relevant to fog life cycle. Satellite and reanalysis products, routine meteorological observations, numerical weather prediction model (WRF and COAMPS) outputs, large-eddy simulations, and phenomenological modeling underpin the interpretation of field observations in a multiscale and multiplatform framework that helps identify and remedy numerical model deficiencies. An overview of the C-FOG field campaign and some preliminary analysis/findings are presented in this paper.
Abstract
Emerging application areas such as air pollution in megacities, wind energy, urban security, and operation of unmanned aerial vehicles have intensified scientific and societal interest in mountain meteorology. To address scientific needs and help improve the prediction of mountain weather, the U.S. Department of Defense has funded a research effort—the Mountain Terrain Atmospheric Modeling and Observations (MATERHORN) Program—that draws the expertise of a multidisciplinary, multi-institutional, and multinational group of researchers. The program has four principal thrusts, encompassing modeling, experimental, technology, and parameterization components, directed at diagnosing model deficiencies and critical knowledge gaps, conducting experimental studies, and developing tools for model improvements. The access to the Granite Mountain Atmospheric Sciences Testbed of the U.S. Army Dugway Proving Ground, as well as to a suite of conventional and novel high-end airborne and surface measurement platforms, has provided an unprecedented opportunity to investigate phenomena of time scales from a few seconds to a few days, covering spatial extents of tens of kilometers down to millimeters. This article provides an overview of the MATERHORN and a glimpse at its initial findings. Orographic forcing creates a multitude of time-dependent submesoscale phenomena that contribute to the variability of mountain weather at mesoscale. The nexus of predictions by mesoscale model ensembles and observations are described, identifying opportunities for further improvements in mountain weather forecasting.
Abstract
Emerging application areas such as air pollution in megacities, wind energy, urban security, and operation of unmanned aerial vehicles have intensified scientific and societal interest in mountain meteorology. To address scientific needs and help improve the prediction of mountain weather, the U.S. Department of Defense has funded a research effort—the Mountain Terrain Atmospheric Modeling and Observations (MATERHORN) Program—that draws the expertise of a multidisciplinary, multi-institutional, and multinational group of researchers. The program has four principal thrusts, encompassing modeling, experimental, technology, and parameterization components, directed at diagnosing model deficiencies and critical knowledge gaps, conducting experimental studies, and developing tools for model improvements. The access to the Granite Mountain Atmospheric Sciences Testbed of the U.S. Army Dugway Proving Ground, as well as to a suite of conventional and novel high-end airborne and surface measurement platforms, has provided an unprecedented opportunity to investigate phenomena of time scales from a few seconds to a few days, covering spatial extents of tens of kilometers down to millimeters. This article provides an overview of the MATERHORN and a glimpse at its initial findings. Orographic forcing creates a multitude of time-dependent submesoscale phenomena that contribute to the variability of mountain weather at mesoscale. The nexus of predictions by mesoscale model ensembles and observations are described, identifying opportunities for further improvements in mountain weather forecasting.
