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Abstract
The largest and potentially most important ocean near-surface biases are examined in the Community Climate System Model coupled simulation of present-day conditions. They are attributed to problems in the component models of the ocean or atmosphere, or both. Tropical biases in sea surface salinity (SSS) are associated with precipitation errors, with the most striking being a band of excess rainfall across the South Pacific at about 8°S. Cooler-than-observed equatorial Pacific sea surface temperature (SST) is necessary to control a potentially catastrophic positive feedback, involving precipitation along the equator. The strength of the wind-driven gyres and interbasin exchange is in reasonable agreement with observations, despite the generally too strong near-surface winds. However, the winds drive far too much transport through Drake Passage [>190 Sv (1 Sv ≡ 106 m3 s−1)], but with little effect on SST and SSS. Problems with the width, separation, and location of western boundary currents and their extensions create large correlated SST and SSS biases in midlatitudes. Ocean model deficiencies are suspected because similar signals are seen in uncoupled ocean solutions, but there is no evidence of serious remote impacts. The seasonal cycles of SST and winds in the equatorial Pacific are not well represented, and numerical experiments suggest that these problems are initiated by the coupling of either or both wind components. The largest mean SST biases develop along the eastern boundaries of subtropical gyres, and the overall coupled model response is found to be linear. In the South Atlantic, surface currents advect these biases across much of the tropical basin. Significant precipitation responses are found both in the northwest Indian Ocean, and locally where the net result is the loss of an identifiable Atlantic intertropical convergence zone, which can be regained by controlling the coastal temperatures and salinities. Biases off South America and Baja California are shown to significantly degrade precipitation across the Pacific, subsurface ocean properties on both sides of the equator, and the seasonal cycle of equatorial SST in the eastern Pacific. These signals extend beyond the reach of surface currents, so connections via the atmosphere and subsurface ocean are implicated. Other experimental results indicate that the local atmospheric forcing is only part of the problem along eastern boundaries, with the representation of ocean upwelling another likely contributor.
Abstract
The largest and potentially most important ocean near-surface biases are examined in the Community Climate System Model coupled simulation of present-day conditions. They are attributed to problems in the component models of the ocean or atmosphere, or both. Tropical biases in sea surface salinity (SSS) are associated with precipitation errors, with the most striking being a band of excess rainfall across the South Pacific at about 8°S. Cooler-than-observed equatorial Pacific sea surface temperature (SST) is necessary to control a potentially catastrophic positive feedback, involving precipitation along the equator. The strength of the wind-driven gyres and interbasin exchange is in reasonable agreement with observations, despite the generally too strong near-surface winds. However, the winds drive far too much transport through Drake Passage [>190 Sv (1 Sv ≡ 106 m3 s−1)], but with little effect on SST and SSS. Problems with the width, separation, and location of western boundary currents and their extensions create large correlated SST and SSS biases in midlatitudes. Ocean model deficiencies are suspected because similar signals are seen in uncoupled ocean solutions, but there is no evidence of serious remote impacts. The seasonal cycles of SST and winds in the equatorial Pacific are not well represented, and numerical experiments suggest that these problems are initiated by the coupling of either or both wind components. The largest mean SST biases develop along the eastern boundaries of subtropical gyres, and the overall coupled model response is found to be linear. In the South Atlantic, surface currents advect these biases across much of the tropical basin. Significant precipitation responses are found both in the northwest Indian Ocean, and locally where the net result is the loss of an identifiable Atlantic intertropical convergence zone, which can be regained by controlling the coastal temperatures and salinities. Biases off South America and Baja California are shown to significantly degrade precipitation across the Pacific, subsurface ocean properties on both sides of the equator, and the seasonal cycle of equatorial SST in the eastern Pacific. These signals extend beyond the reach of surface currents, so connections via the atmosphere and subsurface ocean are implicated. Other experimental results indicate that the local atmospheric forcing is only part of the problem along eastern boundaries, with the representation of ocean upwelling another likely contributor.
Abstract
The coupled ocean–atmosphere interaction and predictability associated with the tropical El Niño phenomenon has motivated researchers to seek analogous phenomena in the midlatitudes as well. Are there midlatitude coupled ocean–atmosphere modes? Is there significant predictability in the midlatitudes? The authors address these questions in the broader context of trying to understand the mechanisms behind midlatitude variability, using an idealized model of the ocean–atmosphere system. The atmosphere is represented using a global two-level eddy-resolving primitive equation model with simplified physical parameterizations. The ocean is represented using a state-of-the-art ocean general circulation model, but configured in a simple Atlantic-like sector geometry. In addition to a coupled integration using this model, uncoupled integrations of the component oceanic and atmospheric models are also carried out to elucidate the mechanisms behind midlatitude variability. The sea surface temperature in the coupled equilibrium state exhibits two dominant modes of variability: (i) a passive oceanic red noise response to stochastic atmospheric forcing, and (ii) an active oceanic mode of variability that is partially excited by atmospheric forcing, and is associated with a periodicity of 16–20 yr. True coupled ocean–atmosphere modes do not appear to play any quantitatively significant role in the midlatitudes, due to the fundamentally different nature of atmospheric dynamics in the midlatitudes compared to the Tropics. However, coupling to the atmosphere does play an important role in determining the spatial and temporal characteristics of the oceanic variability. A statistical assessment suggests that midlatitude atmospheric predictability is modest compared to the predictability associated with tropical phenomena such as El Niño. This predictability arises from the atmospheric response to oceanic modes of variability, rather than from coupled modes. There is significant oceanic predictability on interannual timescales but not on decadal timescales.
Abstract
The coupled ocean–atmosphere interaction and predictability associated with the tropical El Niño phenomenon has motivated researchers to seek analogous phenomena in the midlatitudes as well. Are there midlatitude coupled ocean–atmosphere modes? Is there significant predictability in the midlatitudes? The authors address these questions in the broader context of trying to understand the mechanisms behind midlatitude variability, using an idealized model of the ocean–atmosphere system. The atmosphere is represented using a global two-level eddy-resolving primitive equation model with simplified physical parameterizations. The ocean is represented using a state-of-the-art ocean general circulation model, but configured in a simple Atlantic-like sector geometry. In addition to a coupled integration using this model, uncoupled integrations of the component oceanic and atmospheric models are also carried out to elucidate the mechanisms behind midlatitude variability. The sea surface temperature in the coupled equilibrium state exhibits two dominant modes of variability: (i) a passive oceanic red noise response to stochastic atmospheric forcing, and (ii) an active oceanic mode of variability that is partially excited by atmospheric forcing, and is associated with a periodicity of 16–20 yr. True coupled ocean–atmosphere modes do not appear to play any quantitatively significant role in the midlatitudes, due to the fundamentally different nature of atmospheric dynamics in the midlatitudes compared to the Tropics. However, coupling to the atmosphere does play an important role in determining the spatial and temporal characteristics of the oceanic variability. A statistical assessment suggests that midlatitude atmospheric predictability is modest compared to the predictability associated with tropical phenomena such as El Niño. This predictability arises from the atmospheric response to oceanic modes of variability, rather than from coupled modes. There is significant oceanic predictability on interannual timescales but not on decadal timescales.
Abstract
The subpolar North Atlantic (SPNA) experienced extreme cold during 2015, an event often called the “cold blob.” The evolution of this event in the Community Earth System Model version 1 Decadal Prediction Large Ensemble (CESM1-DPLE) hindcast initialized in November 2014 is compared to observations. This CESM1-DPLE hindcast failed to predict cold conditions during 2015 despite already cold SPNA initial conditions and despite having high sea surface temperature skill in the SPNA in all other years. The goal of this paper is to understand what led to this prediction failure in order to provide insight for future decadal prediction efforts. Our analysis shows that strongly positive North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) conditions during winter and spring 2015 likely sustained the cold blob but were not simulated in any CESM1-DPLE members. We examine the rarity of the 2015 event using the CESM1-DPLE’s uninitialized counterpart, the CESM1 Large Ensemble (CESM1-LE). Results from the CESM1-LE indicate that the exceptional state of the observed NAO in the winter of 2015 is at least part of the explanation for why this event was not encompassed in the CESM1-DPLE spread. To test another possibility—namely, that deficiencies in the initial conditions degraded the prediction—we performed additional hindcasts using the CESM1-DPLE protocol but different initial conditions. Altering the initial conditions did not improve the simulation of the 2015 cold blob, and in some cases, degraded it. Given the difficulty of predicting this event, this case could be a useful test bed for future prediction system development.
Abstract
The subpolar North Atlantic (SPNA) experienced extreme cold during 2015, an event often called the “cold blob.” The evolution of this event in the Community Earth System Model version 1 Decadal Prediction Large Ensemble (CESM1-DPLE) hindcast initialized in November 2014 is compared to observations. This CESM1-DPLE hindcast failed to predict cold conditions during 2015 despite already cold SPNA initial conditions and despite having high sea surface temperature skill in the SPNA in all other years. The goal of this paper is to understand what led to this prediction failure in order to provide insight for future decadal prediction efforts. Our analysis shows that strongly positive North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) conditions during winter and spring 2015 likely sustained the cold blob but were not simulated in any CESM1-DPLE members. We examine the rarity of the 2015 event using the CESM1-DPLE’s uninitialized counterpart, the CESM1 Large Ensemble (CESM1-LE). Results from the CESM1-LE indicate that the exceptional state of the observed NAO in the winter of 2015 is at least part of the explanation for why this event was not encompassed in the CESM1-DPLE spread. To test another possibility—namely, that deficiencies in the initial conditions degraded the prediction—we performed additional hindcasts using the CESM1-DPLE protocol but different initial conditions. Altering the initial conditions did not improve the simulation of the 2015 cold blob, and in some cases, degraded it. Given the difficulty of predicting this event, this case could be a useful test bed for future prediction system development.
Abstract
Robust and nonrobust aspects of Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) variability and mechanisms are analyzed in several 600-yr simulations with the Community Earth System Model. The simulations consist of a set of cases where a few loosely constrained ocean model parameter values are changed, a pair of cases where round-off level perturbations are applied to the initial atmospheric temperature field, and a millennium-scale integration. The time scales of variability differ among the cases with the dominant periods ranging from decadal to centennial. These dominant periods are not stationary in time, indicating that a robust characterization of AMOC temporal variability requires long, multimillennium-scale simulations. A robust aspect is that positive anomalies of the Labrador Sea (LS) upper-ocean density and boundary layer depth and the positive phase of the North Atlantic Oscillation lead AMOC strengthening by 2–3 years. Respective contributions of temperature and salinity to these density anomalies vary across the simulations, but in a majority of the cases temperature contributions dominate. Following an AMOC intensification, all cases show that advection of warm and salty waters into the LS region results in near-neutral density anomalies. Analysis of the LS heat budget indicates that temperature acts to increase density in all cases prior to an AMOC intensification, primarily due to losses by sensible and latent heat fluxes. The accompanying salt budget analysis reveals that the salt contribution to density anomalies varies across the cases, taking both positive and negative values.
Abstract
Robust and nonrobust aspects of Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) variability and mechanisms are analyzed in several 600-yr simulations with the Community Earth System Model. The simulations consist of a set of cases where a few loosely constrained ocean model parameter values are changed, a pair of cases where round-off level perturbations are applied to the initial atmospheric temperature field, and a millennium-scale integration. The time scales of variability differ among the cases with the dominant periods ranging from decadal to centennial. These dominant periods are not stationary in time, indicating that a robust characterization of AMOC temporal variability requires long, multimillennium-scale simulations. A robust aspect is that positive anomalies of the Labrador Sea (LS) upper-ocean density and boundary layer depth and the positive phase of the North Atlantic Oscillation lead AMOC strengthening by 2–3 years. Respective contributions of temperature and salinity to these density anomalies vary across the simulations, but in a majority of the cases temperature contributions dominate. Following an AMOC intensification, all cases show that advection of warm and salty waters into the LS region results in near-neutral density anomalies. Analysis of the LS heat budget indicates that temperature acts to increase density in all cases prior to an AMOC intensification, primarily due to losses by sensible and latent heat fluxes. The accompanying salt budget analysis reveals that the salt contribution to density anomalies varies across the cases, taking both positive and negative values.
Abstract
The approach to equilibrium of a coarse-resolution, seasonally forced, global oceanic general circulation model is investigated, considering the affects of a widely used acceleration technique that distorts the dynamics by using unequal time steps in the governing equations. A measure of the equilibration time for any solution property is defined as the time it takes to go 90% of the way from its present-value to its equilibrium value. This measure becomes approximately time invariant only after sufficiently long integration. It indicates that the total kinetic energy and most mass transport rates attain equilibrium within about 90 and 40 calender years, respectively. The upper-ocean potential temperature and salinity equilibrium times are about 480 and 380 calender years, following 150- and 20-year initial adjustments, respectively. In the abyssal ocean, potential temperature and salinity equilibration take about 4500 and 3900 calender years, respectively. These longer equilibration times are due to the slow diffusion of tracers both along and across the isopycnal surfaces in stably stratified regions, and these times vary with the associated diffusivities. An analysis of synchronous (i.e., not accelerated) integrations shows that there is a complex interplay between convective, advective, and diffusive timescales. Because of the distortion by acceleration of the seasonal cycle, the solutions display some significant adjustments upon switching to synchronous integration. However, the proper seasonal cycle is recovered within five years. Provided that a sufficient equilibrium state has been achieved with acceleration, the model must be integrated synchronously for only about 15 years thereafter to closely approach synchronous equilibrium.
Abstract
The approach to equilibrium of a coarse-resolution, seasonally forced, global oceanic general circulation model is investigated, considering the affects of a widely used acceleration technique that distorts the dynamics by using unequal time steps in the governing equations. A measure of the equilibration time for any solution property is defined as the time it takes to go 90% of the way from its present-value to its equilibrium value. This measure becomes approximately time invariant only after sufficiently long integration. It indicates that the total kinetic energy and most mass transport rates attain equilibrium within about 90 and 40 calender years, respectively. The upper-ocean potential temperature and salinity equilibrium times are about 480 and 380 calender years, following 150- and 20-year initial adjustments, respectively. In the abyssal ocean, potential temperature and salinity equilibration take about 4500 and 3900 calender years, respectively. These longer equilibration times are due to the slow diffusion of tracers both along and across the isopycnal surfaces in stably stratified regions, and these times vary with the associated diffusivities. An analysis of synchronous (i.e., not accelerated) integrations shows that there is a complex interplay between convective, advective, and diffusive timescales. Because of the distortion by acceleration of the seasonal cycle, the solutions display some significant adjustments upon switching to synchronous integration. However, the proper seasonal cycle is recovered within five years. Provided that a sufficient equilibrium state has been achieved with acceleration, the model must be integrated synchronously for only about 15 years thereafter to closely approach synchronous equilibrium.
Abstract
The interannual variability in upper-ocean (0–400 m) temperature and governing mechanisms for the period 1968–97 are quantified from a global ocean hindcast simulation driven by atmospheric reanalysis and satellite data products. The unconstrained simulation exhibits considerable skill in replicating the observed interannual variability in vertically integrated heat content estimated from hydrographic data and monthly satellite sea surface temperature and sea surface height data. Globally, the most significant interannual variability modes arise from El Niño–Southern Oscillation and the Indian Ocean zonal mode, with substantial extension beyond the Tropics into the midlatitudes. In the well-stratified Tropics and subtropics, net annual heat storage variability is driven predominately by the convergence of the advective heat transport, mostly reflecting velocity anomalies times the mean temperature field. Vertical velocity variability is caused by remote wind forcing, and subsurface temperature anomalies are governed mostly by isopycnal displacements (heave). The dynamics at mid- to high latitudes are qualitatively different and vary regionally. Interannual temperature variability is more coherent with depth because of deep winter mixing and variations in western boundary currents and the Antarctic Circumpolar Current that span the upper thermocline. Net annual heat storage variability is forced by a mixture of local air–sea heat fluxes and the convergence of the advective heat transport, the latter resulting from both velocity and temperature anomalies. Also, density-compensated temperature changes on isopycnal surfaces (spice) are quantitatively significant.
Abstract
The interannual variability in upper-ocean (0–400 m) temperature and governing mechanisms for the period 1968–97 are quantified from a global ocean hindcast simulation driven by atmospheric reanalysis and satellite data products. The unconstrained simulation exhibits considerable skill in replicating the observed interannual variability in vertically integrated heat content estimated from hydrographic data and monthly satellite sea surface temperature and sea surface height data. Globally, the most significant interannual variability modes arise from El Niño–Southern Oscillation and the Indian Ocean zonal mode, with substantial extension beyond the Tropics into the midlatitudes. In the well-stratified Tropics and subtropics, net annual heat storage variability is driven predominately by the convergence of the advective heat transport, mostly reflecting velocity anomalies times the mean temperature field. Vertical velocity variability is caused by remote wind forcing, and subsurface temperature anomalies are governed mostly by isopycnal displacements (heave). The dynamics at mid- to high latitudes are qualitatively different and vary regionally. Interannual temperature variability is more coherent with depth because of deep winter mixing and variations in western boundary currents and the Antarctic Circumpolar Current that span the upper thermocline. Net annual heat storage variability is forced by a mixture of local air–sea heat fluxes and the convergence of the advective heat transport, the latter resulting from both velocity and temperature anomalies. Also, density-compensated temperature changes on isopycnal surfaces (spice) are quantitatively significant.
Abstract
The link at 26.5°N between the Atlantic meridional heat transport (MHT) and the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (MOC) is investigated in two climate models, the GFDL Climate Model version 2.1 (CM2.1) and the NCAR Community Climate System Model version 4 (CCSM4), and compared with the recent observational estimates from the Rapid Climate Change–Meridional Overturning Circulation and Heatflux Array (RAPID–MOCHA) array. Despite a stronger-than-observed MOC magnitude, both models underestimate the mean MHT at 26.5°N because of an overly diffuse thermocline. Biases result from errors in both overturning and gyre components of the MHT. The observed linear relationship between MHT and MOC at 26.5°N is realistically simulated by the two models and is mainly due to the overturning component of the MHT. Fluctuations in overturning MHT are dominated by Ekman transport variability in CM2.1 and CCSM4, whereas baroclinic geostrophic transport variability plays a larger role in RAPID. CCSM4, which has a parameterization of Nordic Sea overflows and thus a more realistic North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) penetration, shows smaller biases in the overturning heat transport than CM2.1 owing to deeper NADW at colder temperatures. The horizontal gyre heat transport and its sensitivity to the MOC are poorly represented in both models. The wind-driven gyre heat transport is northward in observations at 26.5°N, whereas it is weakly southward in both models, reducing the total MHT. This study emphasizes model biases that are responsible for the too-weak MHT, particularly at the western boundary. The use of direct MHT observations through RAPID allows for identification of the source of the too-weak MHT in the two models, a bias shared by a number of Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) coupled models.
Abstract
The link at 26.5°N between the Atlantic meridional heat transport (MHT) and the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (MOC) is investigated in two climate models, the GFDL Climate Model version 2.1 (CM2.1) and the NCAR Community Climate System Model version 4 (CCSM4), and compared with the recent observational estimates from the Rapid Climate Change–Meridional Overturning Circulation and Heatflux Array (RAPID–MOCHA) array. Despite a stronger-than-observed MOC magnitude, both models underestimate the mean MHT at 26.5°N because of an overly diffuse thermocline. Biases result from errors in both overturning and gyre components of the MHT. The observed linear relationship between MHT and MOC at 26.5°N is realistically simulated by the two models and is mainly due to the overturning component of the MHT. Fluctuations in overturning MHT are dominated by Ekman transport variability in CM2.1 and CCSM4, whereas baroclinic geostrophic transport variability plays a larger role in RAPID. CCSM4, which has a parameterization of Nordic Sea overflows and thus a more realistic North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) penetration, shows smaller biases in the overturning heat transport than CM2.1 owing to deeper NADW at colder temperatures. The horizontal gyre heat transport and its sensitivity to the MOC are poorly represented in both models. The wind-driven gyre heat transport is northward in observations at 26.5°N, whereas it is weakly southward in both models, reducing the total MHT. This study emphasizes model biases that are responsible for the too-weak MHT, particularly at the western boundary. The use of direct MHT observations through RAPID allows for identification of the source of the too-weak MHT in the two models, a bias shared by a number of Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) coupled models.
Abstract
The latest version of the Community Climate System Model (CCSM) Community Atmosphere Model version 3 (CAM3) has been released to allow for numerical integration at a variety of horizontal resolutions. One goal of the CAM3 design was to provide comparable large-scale simulation fidelity over a range of horizontal resolutions through modifications to adjustable coefficients in the parameterized treatment of clouds and precipitation. Coefficients are modified to provide similar cloud radiative forcing characteristics for each resolution. Simulations with the CAM3 show robust systematic improvements with higher horizontal resolution for a variety of features, most notably associated with the large-scale dynamical circulation. This paper will focus on simulation differences between the two principal configurations of the CAM3, which differ by a factor of 2 in their horizontal resolution.
Abstract
The latest version of the Community Climate System Model (CCSM) Community Atmosphere Model version 3 (CAM3) has been released to allow for numerical integration at a variety of horizontal resolutions. One goal of the CAM3 design was to provide comparable large-scale simulation fidelity over a range of horizontal resolutions through modifications to adjustable coefficients in the parameterized treatment of clouds and precipitation. Coefficients are modified to provide similar cloud radiative forcing characteristics for each resolution. Simulations with the CAM3 show robust systematic improvements with higher horizontal resolution for a variety of features, most notably associated with the large-scale dynamical circulation. This paper will focus on simulation differences between the two principal configurations of the CAM3, which differ by a factor of 2 in their horizontal resolution.
Abstract
Observed September Arctic sea ice has declined sharply over the satellite era. While most climate models forced by observed external forcing simulate a decline, few show trends matching the observations, suggesting either model deficiencies or significant contributions from internal variability. Using a set of perturbed climate model experiments, we provide evidence that atmospheric teleconnections associated with the Atlantic multidecadal variability (AMV) can drive low-frequency Arctic sea ice fluctuations. Even without AMV-related changes in ocean heat transport, AMV-like surface temperature anomalies lead to adjustments in atmospheric circulation patterns that produce similar Arctic sea ice changes in three different climate models. Positive AMV anomalies induce a decrease in the frequency of winter polar anticyclones, which is reflected both in the sea level pressure as a weakening of the Beaufort Sea high and in the surface temperature as warm anomalies in response to increased low-cloud cover. Positive AMV anomalies are also shown to favor an increased prevalence of an Arctic dipole–like sea level pressure pattern in late winter/early spring. The resulting anomalous winds drive anomalous ice motions (dynamic effect). Combined with the reduced winter sea ice formation (thermodynamic effect), the Arctic sea ice becomes thinner, younger, and more prone to melt in summer. Following a phase shift to positive AMV, the resulting atmospheric teleconnections can lead to a decadal ice thinning trend in the Arctic Ocean on the order of 8%–16% of the reconstructed long-term trend, and a decadal trend (decline) in September Arctic sea ice area of up to 21% of the observed long-term trend.
Abstract
Observed September Arctic sea ice has declined sharply over the satellite era. While most climate models forced by observed external forcing simulate a decline, few show trends matching the observations, suggesting either model deficiencies or significant contributions from internal variability. Using a set of perturbed climate model experiments, we provide evidence that atmospheric teleconnections associated with the Atlantic multidecadal variability (AMV) can drive low-frequency Arctic sea ice fluctuations. Even without AMV-related changes in ocean heat transport, AMV-like surface temperature anomalies lead to adjustments in atmospheric circulation patterns that produce similar Arctic sea ice changes in three different climate models. Positive AMV anomalies induce a decrease in the frequency of winter polar anticyclones, which is reflected both in the sea level pressure as a weakening of the Beaufort Sea high and in the surface temperature as warm anomalies in response to increased low-cloud cover. Positive AMV anomalies are also shown to favor an increased prevalence of an Arctic dipole–like sea level pressure pattern in late winter/early spring. The resulting anomalous winds drive anomalous ice motions (dynamic effect). Combined with the reduced winter sea ice formation (thermodynamic effect), the Arctic sea ice becomes thinner, younger, and more prone to melt in summer. Following a phase shift to positive AMV, the resulting atmospheric teleconnections can lead to a decadal ice thinning trend in the Arctic Ocean on the order of 8%–16% of the reconstructed long-term trend, and a decadal trend (decline) in September Arctic sea ice area of up to 21% of the observed long-term trend.
Abstract
Horizontal momentum flux in a global ocean climate model is formulated as an anisotropic viscosity with two spatially varying coefficients. This friction can be made purely dissipative, does not produce unphysical torques, and satisfies the symmetry conditions required of the Reynolds stress tensor. The two primary design criteria are to have viscosity at values appropriate for the parameterization of missing mesoscale eddies wherever possible and to use other values only where required by the numerics. These other viscosities control numerical noise from advection and generate western boundary currents that are wide enough to be resolved by the coarse grid of the model. Noise on the model gridscale is tolerated provided its amplitude is less than about 0.05 cm s−1. Parameter tuning is minimized by applying physical and numerical principles. The potential value of this line of model development is demonstrated by comparison with equatorial ocean observations.
In particular, the goal of producing model equatorial ocean currents comparable to observations was achieved in the Pacific Ocean. The Equatorial Undercurrent reaches a maximum magnitude of nearly 100 cm s−1 in the annual mean. Also, the spatial distribution of near-surface currents compares favorably with observations from the Global Drifter Program. The exceptions are off the equator; in the model the North Equatorial Countercurrent is improved, but still too weak, and the northward flow along the coast of South America may be too shallow. Equatorial Pacific upwelling has a realistic pattern and its magnitude is of the same order as diagnostic model estimates. The necessary ingredients to achieve these results are wind forcing based on satellite scatterometry, a background vertical viscosity no greater than about 1 cm2 s−1, and a mesoscale eddy viscosity of order 1000 m2 s−1 acting on meridional shear of zonal momentum. Model resolution is not critical, provided these three elements remain unaltered. Thus, if the scatterometer winds are accurate, the model results are consistent with observational estimates of these two coefficients. These winds have larger westward stress than NCEP reanalysis winds, produce a 14% stronger EUC, more upwelling, but a weaker westward surface flow.
In the Indian Ocean the seasonal cycle of equatorial currents does not appear to be overly attenuated by the horizontal viscosity, with differences from observations attributable to interannual variability. However, in the Atlantic, the numerics still require too large a meridional viscosity over too much of the basin, and a zonal resolution approaching 1° may be necessary to match observations. Because of this viscosity, increasing the background vertical viscosity slowed the westward surface current; opposite to the response in the Pacific.
Abstract
Horizontal momentum flux in a global ocean climate model is formulated as an anisotropic viscosity with two spatially varying coefficients. This friction can be made purely dissipative, does not produce unphysical torques, and satisfies the symmetry conditions required of the Reynolds stress tensor. The two primary design criteria are to have viscosity at values appropriate for the parameterization of missing mesoscale eddies wherever possible and to use other values only where required by the numerics. These other viscosities control numerical noise from advection and generate western boundary currents that are wide enough to be resolved by the coarse grid of the model. Noise on the model gridscale is tolerated provided its amplitude is less than about 0.05 cm s−1. Parameter tuning is minimized by applying physical and numerical principles. The potential value of this line of model development is demonstrated by comparison with equatorial ocean observations.
In particular, the goal of producing model equatorial ocean currents comparable to observations was achieved in the Pacific Ocean. The Equatorial Undercurrent reaches a maximum magnitude of nearly 100 cm s−1 in the annual mean. Also, the spatial distribution of near-surface currents compares favorably with observations from the Global Drifter Program. The exceptions are off the equator; in the model the North Equatorial Countercurrent is improved, but still too weak, and the northward flow along the coast of South America may be too shallow. Equatorial Pacific upwelling has a realistic pattern and its magnitude is of the same order as diagnostic model estimates. The necessary ingredients to achieve these results are wind forcing based on satellite scatterometry, a background vertical viscosity no greater than about 1 cm2 s−1, and a mesoscale eddy viscosity of order 1000 m2 s−1 acting on meridional shear of zonal momentum. Model resolution is not critical, provided these three elements remain unaltered. Thus, if the scatterometer winds are accurate, the model results are consistent with observational estimates of these two coefficients. These winds have larger westward stress than NCEP reanalysis winds, produce a 14% stronger EUC, more upwelling, but a weaker westward surface flow.
In the Indian Ocean the seasonal cycle of equatorial currents does not appear to be overly attenuated by the horizontal viscosity, with differences from observations attributable to interannual variability. However, in the Atlantic, the numerics still require too large a meridional viscosity over too much of the basin, and a zonal resolution approaching 1° may be necessary to match observations. Because of this viscosity, increasing the background vertical viscosity slowed the westward surface current; opposite to the response in the Pacific.
