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- Author or Editor: Graham Feingold x
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Abstract
A parameterization of evaporation losses below cloud base is presented for use in general circulation models to assist in quantification of water content in the hydrological cycle. The scheme is based on detailed model calculations of the evolution of raindrop spectra below cloud base and includes the processes of collision coalescence/breakup. Evaporation is expressed as a percentage decrease in the liquid water mixing ratio, and the parameterization is formulated as an algebraic equation in (i) the cloud-base values of the mixing ratio and the drop concentration, (ii) the fall distance, and (iii) the lapse rate of temperature in the subcloud environment. Results show that when compared to the detailed model calculations, good estimates of evaporation (usually within 20% and often within 10%) are obtained for a wide range of conditions. An analysis of the errors in evaporation calculations associated with errors in the parameterization variables is performed.
Abstract
A parameterization of evaporation losses below cloud base is presented for use in general circulation models to assist in quantification of water content in the hydrological cycle. The scheme is based on detailed model calculations of the evolution of raindrop spectra below cloud base and includes the processes of collision coalescence/breakup. Evaporation is expressed as a percentage decrease in the liquid water mixing ratio, and the parameterization is formulated as an algebraic equation in (i) the cloud-base values of the mixing ratio and the drop concentration, (ii) the fall distance, and (iii) the lapse rate of temperature in the subcloud environment. Results show that when compared to the detailed model calculations, good estimates of evaporation (usually within 20% and often within 10%) are obtained for a wide range of conditions. An analysis of the errors in evaporation calculations associated with errors in the parameterization variables is performed.
Abstract
Marine cloud brightening (MCB) has been proposed as a viable way to counteract global warming by artificially increasing the albedo and lifetime of clouds via deliberate seeding of aerosol particles. Stratocumulus decks, which cover wide swaths of Earth’s surface, are considered the primary target for this geoengineering approach. The macroscale properties of this cloud type exhibit a high sensitivity to cloud microphysics, exposing the potential for undesired changes in cloud optical properties in response to MCB. In this study, we apply a highly detailed Lagrangian cloud model, coupled to an idealized parcel model as well as a full three-dimensional large-eddy simulation model, to show that the choice of seeded particle size distribution is crucial to the success of MCB, and that its efficacy can be significantly reduced by undesirable microphysical processes. The presence of even a small number of large particles in the seeded size spectrum may trigger significant precipitation, which will reduce cloud water and may even break up the cloud deck, reducing the scene albedo and hence counteracting MCB. On the other hand, a seeded spectrum comprising a large number of small particles reduces the fraction of activated cloud droplets and increases entrainment and evaporation of cloud water, which also reduces the efficiency of MCB. In between, there may exist an aerosol size distribution that minimizes undesirable microphysical processes and enables optimal MCB. This optimal size distribution is expected to be case dependent.
Abstract
Marine cloud brightening (MCB) has been proposed as a viable way to counteract global warming by artificially increasing the albedo and lifetime of clouds via deliberate seeding of aerosol particles. Stratocumulus decks, which cover wide swaths of Earth’s surface, are considered the primary target for this geoengineering approach. The macroscale properties of this cloud type exhibit a high sensitivity to cloud microphysics, exposing the potential for undesired changes in cloud optical properties in response to MCB. In this study, we apply a highly detailed Lagrangian cloud model, coupled to an idealized parcel model as well as a full three-dimensional large-eddy simulation model, to show that the choice of seeded particle size distribution is crucial to the success of MCB, and that its efficacy can be significantly reduced by undesirable microphysical processes. The presence of even a small number of large particles in the seeded size spectrum may trigger significant precipitation, which will reduce cloud water and may even break up the cloud deck, reducing the scene albedo and hence counteracting MCB. On the other hand, a seeded spectrum comprising a large number of small particles reduces the fraction of activated cloud droplets and increases entrainment and evaporation of cloud water, which also reduces the efficiency of MCB. In between, there may exist an aerosol size distribution that minimizes undesirable microphysical processes and enables optimal MCB. This optimal size distribution is expected to be case dependent.
Abstract
The potential impact of daytime local summer convective cloud systems on shelter air temperature is illustrated by numerical modeling and observations. Prolonged reductions in surface solar irradiance due to cloudiness result in a noticeable decrease in shelter temperature over drylands and a moderate temperature fall over wet surfaces. When cloudiness is abruptly diminished, shelter temperature increases rapidly. Numerical modeling of downdrafts associated with rainfall in a dry convective atmosphere indicates a pronounced drop in shelter temperature (as high as 12°C). The modeling results are consistent with observations. The significance of the results and their potential applications are outlined.
Abstract
The potential impact of daytime local summer convective cloud systems on shelter air temperature is illustrated by numerical modeling and observations. Prolonged reductions in surface solar irradiance due to cloudiness result in a noticeable decrease in shelter temperature over drylands and a moderate temperature fall over wet surfaces. When cloudiness is abruptly diminished, shelter temperature increases rapidly. Numerical modeling of downdrafts associated with rainfall in a dry convective atmosphere indicates a pronounced drop in shelter temperature (as high as 12°C). The modeling results are consistent with observations. The significance of the results and their potential applications are outlined.
Abstract
Measurements of rain drop size spectra in Israel were carried out over a period of two years. It is shown that the size distribution can be best described by a lognormal distribution. With its parameters weighted by a certain choice of moments, this distribution has a better squared-error fit to the observed data than the gamma or the exponential distributions. Furthermore, this distribution is well suited for explaining drop size distribution effects in the dual-parameter remote measurement of rainfall. The lognormal distribution has the advantage that all its moments are also lognormally distributed. Its parameters, in their form presented here, have physical meaning (NT =drop concentration, Dg =the geometric mean diameter, and σ=standard geometric deviation). This facilitates direct interpretation of variations in the drop size spectrum. The different moments can easily be integrated to obtain simple expressions for the various rainfall parameters. The observed values of Dg and NT are found to depend more strongly than σ on rainfall rate (R). At high R (>45 mm h−1) the distribution tends to a steady state form (Dg and σ constant). These results suggest that the lognormal representation is suitable for a broad range of applications and can facilitate interpretation of the physical processes which control the shaping of the distribution.
Abstract
Measurements of rain drop size spectra in Israel were carried out over a period of two years. It is shown that the size distribution can be best described by a lognormal distribution. With its parameters weighted by a certain choice of moments, this distribution has a better squared-error fit to the observed data than the gamma or the exponential distributions. Furthermore, this distribution is well suited for explaining drop size distribution effects in the dual-parameter remote measurement of rainfall. The lognormal distribution has the advantage that all its moments are also lognormally distributed. Its parameters, in their form presented here, have physical meaning (NT =drop concentration, Dg =the geometric mean diameter, and σ=standard geometric deviation). This facilitates direct interpretation of variations in the drop size spectrum. The different moments can easily be integrated to obtain simple expressions for the various rainfall parameters. The observed values of Dg and NT are found to depend more strongly than σ on rainfall rate (R). At high R (>45 mm h−1) the distribution tends to a steady state form (Dg and σ constant). These results suggest that the lognormal representation is suitable for a broad range of applications and can facilitate interpretation of the physical processes which control the shaping of the distribution.
Abstract
Use of the lognormal form of raindrop size distributions in simulations of differential reflectivity (ZDR ) measurements is investigated. Using two remotely measured variables and an empirical relation, the three parameters of the lognormal distribution can be deduced and the spectrum integrated to obtain rain rate. This is demonstrated by a simulation of the ZDR method using ground-based drop size distributions. Drop axis ratio and sampling time effects are also investigated and results compared to those obtained using a gamma distribution. It is shown that the lognormal representation is easily adaptable for use in the ZDR method. Using our dataset, we show that the lognormal size distribution provides lower average absolute deviations of theoretically determined rain rates from actual ones (10.7%) than those obtained using either the exponential (41.0%) or gamma distributions (11.8%).
Abstract
Use of the lognormal form of raindrop size distributions in simulations of differential reflectivity (ZDR ) measurements is investigated. Using two remotely measured variables and an empirical relation, the three parameters of the lognormal distribution can be deduced and the spectrum integrated to obtain rain rate. This is demonstrated by a simulation of the ZDR method using ground-based drop size distributions. Drop axis ratio and sampling time effects are also investigated and results compared to those obtained using a gamma distribution. It is shown that the lognormal representation is easily adaptable for use in the ZDR method. Using our dataset, we show that the lognormal size distribution provides lower average absolute deviations of theoretically determined rain rates from actual ones (10.7%) than those obtained using either the exponential (41.0%) or gamma distributions (11.8%).
Abstract
A new modeling framework is used to investigate aerosol–cloud–precipitation interactions and dynamical feedbacks at the mesoscale. The focus is on simulation of the formation and evolution of cellular structures that are commonly seen in satellite images of marine stratocumulus clouds. Simulations are performed at moderate resolution in a 60 × 60 km2 domain for 16 h to adequately represent the mesoscale organization associated with open cells and precipitation. Results support the emerging understanding that precipitation plays a critical role in the formation and evolution of open cells. Evaporation of raindrops generates a dynamic response that manifests itself in cellular organization of updrafts and downdrafts and promotes and sustains the formation of an open cellular structure in cloud fields. Vertical motion in open-cell centers with thin clouds is minimal. It is shown that a mean surface rain rate as low as 0.02 mm day−1 is, for the case considered, sufficient to promote the formation of open cells. The maximum dimension of individual open cells ranges between 5 and 30 km. Individual cells grow at a mean rate of between 5 and 10 km h−1. Irregularity in the shape of open cells is caused by formation of new precipitating regions at the cell walls and interference with neighboring cells, which erode, and eventually eliminate, the old cells. The typical lifetime of large individual open cells is about 2 h, close to that observed by radar, although a collection of open cells as a whole may last for tens of hours.
Abstract
A new modeling framework is used to investigate aerosol–cloud–precipitation interactions and dynamical feedbacks at the mesoscale. The focus is on simulation of the formation and evolution of cellular structures that are commonly seen in satellite images of marine stratocumulus clouds. Simulations are performed at moderate resolution in a 60 × 60 km2 domain for 16 h to adequately represent the mesoscale organization associated with open cells and precipitation. Results support the emerging understanding that precipitation plays a critical role in the formation and evolution of open cells. Evaporation of raindrops generates a dynamic response that manifests itself in cellular organization of updrafts and downdrafts and promotes and sustains the formation of an open cellular structure in cloud fields. Vertical motion in open-cell centers with thin clouds is minimal. It is shown that a mean surface rain rate as low as 0.02 mm day−1 is, for the case considered, sufficient to promote the formation of open cells. The maximum dimension of individual open cells ranges between 5 and 30 km. Individual cells grow at a mean rate of between 5 and 10 km h−1. Irregularity in the shape of open cells is caused by formation of new precipitating regions at the cell walls and interference with neighboring cells, which erode, and eventually eliminate, the old cells. The typical lifetime of large individual open cells is about 2 h, close to that observed by radar, although a collection of open cells as a whole may last for tens of hours.
Abstract
This is the second of two companion papers on modeling of mesoscale cellular structures and drizzle in marine stratocumulus. In the first, aerosol–cloud–precipitation interactions and dynamical feedbacks were investigated to study the formation and evolution of open and closed cellular structures separately. In this paper, coexisting open and closed cells and how they influence one another are examined in a model domain of 180 × 60 × 1.5 km3. Simulations show that gradients in aerosol at the open–closed-cell boundary cause gradients in precipitation that generate a mesoscale circulation. The circulation promotes precipitation in the polluted closed cells but suppresses it in open cells by transporting water vapor to the closed-cell regime and carrying drier air and aerosol back to the open cells. The strength of this circulation depends on the contrast in precipitation under clean and polluted conditions at the boundary. Ship plumes emitted into clean, precipitating regions, simulated as a special case of a clean–polluted boundary, develop a similar circulation. Drizzle in the ship track is first suppressed by the increase in aerosol particles but later recovers and becomes even stronger because the local circulation enhances liquid water path owing to the convergence of water vapor from the region adjacent to the track. This circulation modifies the transport and mixing of ship plumes and enhances their dispersal. Finally, results show that whereas ship emissions do increase cloud albedo in regions of open cells, even the addition of very large aerosol concentrations cannot transform an open cellular structure to a closed one, for the case considered.
Abstract
This is the second of two companion papers on modeling of mesoscale cellular structures and drizzle in marine stratocumulus. In the first, aerosol–cloud–precipitation interactions and dynamical feedbacks were investigated to study the formation and evolution of open and closed cellular structures separately. In this paper, coexisting open and closed cells and how they influence one another are examined in a model domain of 180 × 60 × 1.5 km3. Simulations show that gradients in aerosol at the open–closed-cell boundary cause gradients in precipitation that generate a mesoscale circulation. The circulation promotes precipitation in the polluted closed cells but suppresses it in open cells by transporting water vapor to the closed-cell regime and carrying drier air and aerosol back to the open cells. The strength of this circulation depends on the contrast in precipitation under clean and polluted conditions at the boundary. Ship plumes emitted into clean, precipitating regions, simulated as a special case of a clean–polluted boundary, develop a similar circulation. Drizzle in the ship track is first suppressed by the increase in aerosol particles but later recovers and becomes even stronger because the local circulation enhances liquid water path owing to the convergence of water vapor from the region adjacent to the track. This circulation modifies the transport and mixing of ship plumes and enhances their dispersal. Finally, results show that whereas ship emissions do increase cloud albedo in regions of open cells, even the addition of very large aerosol concentrations cannot transform an open cellular structure to a closed one, for the case considered.
Abstract
The effects of aerosol on warm trade cumulus clouds are investigated using a large-eddy simulation with size-resolved cloud microphysics. It is shown that, as expected, increases in aerosols cause a reduction in precipitation and an increase in the cloud-averaged liquid water path (LWP). However, for the case under study, cloud fraction, cloud size, cloud-top height, and depth decrease in response to increasing aerosol concentration, contrary to accepted hypotheses associated with the second aerosol indirect effect. It is found that the complex responses of clouds to aerosols are determined by competing effects of precipitation and droplet evaporation associated with entrainment. As aerosol concentration increases, precipitation suppression tends to maintain the clouds and lead to higher cloud LWP, whereas cloud droplets become smaller and evaporate more readily, which tends to dissipate the clouds and leads to lower cloud fraction, cloud size, and depth. An additional set of experiments with higher surface latent heat flux, and hence higher LWP and drizzle rate, was also performed. Changes in cloud properties due to aerosols have the same trends as in the base runs, although the magnitudes of the changes are larger. Evidence for significant stabilization (or destabilization) of the subcloud layer due to drizzle is not found, mainly because drizzling clouds cover only a small fraction of the domain. It is suggested that cloud fraction may only increase with increasing aerosol loading for larger clouds that are less susceptible to entrainment and evaporation. Finally, it is noted that at any given aerosol concentration the dynamical variability in bulk cloud parameters such as LWP tends to be larger than the aerosol-induced changes in these parameters, indicating that the second aerosol indirect effect may be hard to measure in this cloud type. The variability in cloud optical depth is, however, dominated by changes in aerosol, rather than dynamics.
Abstract
The effects of aerosol on warm trade cumulus clouds are investigated using a large-eddy simulation with size-resolved cloud microphysics. It is shown that, as expected, increases in aerosols cause a reduction in precipitation and an increase in the cloud-averaged liquid water path (LWP). However, for the case under study, cloud fraction, cloud size, cloud-top height, and depth decrease in response to increasing aerosol concentration, contrary to accepted hypotheses associated with the second aerosol indirect effect. It is found that the complex responses of clouds to aerosols are determined by competing effects of precipitation and droplet evaporation associated with entrainment. As aerosol concentration increases, precipitation suppression tends to maintain the clouds and lead to higher cloud LWP, whereas cloud droplets become smaller and evaporate more readily, which tends to dissipate the clouds and leads to lower cloud fraction, cloud size, and depth. An additional set of experiments with higher surface latent heat flux, and hence higher LWP and drizzle rate, was also performed. Changes in cloud properties due to aerosols have the same trends as in the base runs, although the magnitudes of the changes are larger. Evidence for significant stabilization (or destabilization) of the subcloud layer due to drizzle is not found, mainly because drizzling clouds cover only a small fraction of the domain. It is suggested that cloud fraction may only increase with increasing aerosol loading for larger clouds that are less susceptible to entrainment and evaporation. Finally, it is noted that at any given aerosol concentration the dynamical variability in bulk cloud parameters such as LWP tends to be larger than the aerosol-induced changes in these parameters, indicating that the second aerosol indirect effect may be hard to measure in this cloud type. The variability in cloud optical depth is, however, dominated by changes in aerosol, rather than dynamics.
Abstract
The entrainment and mixing of free-tropospheric air is an essential component of the observed microphysical structure of stratocumulus clouds. Since the relevant scales involved in this process are usually smaller than the grid spacing of typical large-eddy simulations (LESs), their correct representation is difficult. To adequately accommodate these small-scale processes, we apply a recently developed approach that explicitly simulates LES subgrid-scale (SGS) turbulence fluctuation of supersaturation using the one-dimensional linear eddy model. As a result of reduced numerical diffusion and the ability to explicitly represent the SGS distribution of liquid water and supersaturation, entrainment rates tend to be lower in the new approach compared to simulations without it. Furthermore, cloud holes comprising free-tropospheric air with negligible liquid water are shown to persist longer in the stratocumulus deck. Their mixing with the cloud is shown to be more sensitive to the microphysical composition of the cloud as a result of the explicitly resolved inhomogeneous mixing, which is also confirmed analytically. Moreover, inhomogeneous mixing is shown to decrease the droplet concentration and to increase droplet growth significantly, in contrast to previous studies. All in all, the simulations presented can be seen as a first step to bridge the gap between ultra-high-resolution direct numerical simulation and LES, allowing an appropriate representation of small-scale mixing processes, together with the large-scale dynamics of a stratocumulus system.
Abstract
The entrainment and mixing of free-tropospheric air is an essential component of the observed microphysical structure of stratocumulus clouds. Since the relevant scales involved in this process are usually smaller than the grid spacing of typical large-eddy simulations (LESs), their correct representation is difficult. To adequately accommodate these small-scale processes, we apply a recently developed approach that explicitly simulates LES subgrid-scale (SGS) turbulence fluctuation of supersaturation using the one-dimensional linear eddy model. As a result of reduced numerical diffusion and the ability to explicitly represent the SGS distribution of liquid water and supersaturation, entrainment rates tend to be lower in the new approach compared to simulations without it. Furthermore, cloud holes comprising free-tropospheric air with negligible liquid water are shown to persist longer in the stratocumulus deck. Their mixing with the cloud is shown to be more sensitive to the microphysical composition of the cloud as a result of the explicitly resolved inhomogeneous mixing, which is also confirmed analytically. Moreover, inhomogeneous mixing is shown to decrease the droplet concentration and to increase droplet growth significantly, in contrast to previous studies. All in all, the simulations presented can be seen as a first step to bridge the gap between ultra-high-resolution direct numerical simulation and LES, allowing an appropriate representation of small-scale mixing processes, together with the large-scale dynamics of a stratocumulus system.
