Abstract

In an attempt to understand the dynamics of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ), this study explores the extent to which the ITCZ is causally related to zonally propagating synoptic-scale disturbances. The ITCZ, measured by its mean convection, is represented by mean outgoing longwave radiation (OLR). Synoptic-scale disturbances, measured by their deep convective signals, are represented by the spectral power of the OLR that is significantly above its red-noise background. Time-mean spatial distributions as well as annual and interannual variability of the ITCZ are compared with those of synoptic-scale disturbances, which are dominated by westward-propagating signals. In general, they match each other well in their mean distributions and annual cycles. But, in detail, discrepancies between the two fields exist, some of them substantial. The maximum disturbance activity tends to be located at the polar side of the ITCZ. The seasonal cycles of the two share many similarities, but the variations in the intensity and latitudinal locations of the disturbances are greater than those of the ITCZ. On interannual timescales, their relationship is even more limited. Comparisons are also made between the observations and theories relating the ITCZ and westward-propagating synoptic-scale disturbances. The results suggest that the observed ITCZ does not owe its existence to zonally propagating synoptic-scale disturbances, in the sense that it would still exist in the absence of the disturbances. But the similarities in their means and annual cycles imply that the disturbances alone can result in an ITCZ resembling the observed one in many respects. The observations, on the other hand, are consistent with the theories that view the dynamical instability of the ITCZ as a cause of some westward-propagating synoptic-scale disturbances.

Abstract

Spectral characteristics of convective signals in synoptic-scale disturbances along the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) are examined using a 20-yr daily outgoing longwave radiation dataset. A new analysis method, which combines conventional wavenumber–frequency spectrum analysis and wavelet analysis, is developed to explore the longitudinal, seasonal, and interannual variations in these disturbances within the ITCZ whose seasonal migration varies in different parts of the Tropics. The analysis focuses on three longitudinal sectors where the ITCZ can be clearly identified: the western-central Pacific, the central-eastern Pacific, and the Atlantic–West Africa. The most striking results are the evident zonal variability in the spectral properties of westward-propagating synoptic-scale disturbances. The zonal variability exists not only in their dominant frequencies and zonal wavenumbers, but also in their seasonal and interannual variations. Eastward-propagating synoptic-scale disturbances in the ITCZ, in contrast, exhibit much less zonal variability. The results suggest that dynamical relationships between the ITCZ and its embedded westward-propagating synoptic-scale disturbances, if they exist as predicted by theories and numerical simulations of the ITCZ, are likely to vary in longitude.

Abstract

In this study, the seasonal variations in surface rainfall and associated large-scale processes in the tropical eastern Atlantic and West African region are investigated. The 6-yr (1998–2003) high-quality Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) rainfall, sea surface temperature (SST), water vapor, and cloud liquid water observations are applied along with the NCEP–NCAR reanalysis wind components and a 4-yr (2000–2003) Quick Scatterometer (Quik SCAT) satellite-observed surface wind product.

Major mean rainfall over West Africa tends to be concentrated in two regions and is observed in two different seasons, manifesting an abrupt shift of the mean rainfall zone during June–July: (i) near the Gulf of Guinea (about 5°N), intense convection and rainfall are seen during April–June and roughly follow the seasonality of SST in the tropical eastern Atlantic, and (ii) along the latitudes of about 10°N over the interior of the West African continent, a second intense rain belt begins to develop in July and remains there during the later summer season. This belt coexists with a northward-moving African easterly jet (AEJ) and its accompanying horizontal and vertical shear zones, the appearance and intensification of an upper-tropospheric tropical easterly jet (TEJ), and a strong low-level westerly flow. Westward-propagating wave signals [i.e., African easterly waves (AEWs)] dominate the synoptic-scale variability during July–September, in contrast to the evident eastward-propagating wave signals during May–June.

The abrupt shift of the mean rainfall zone thus turns out to be a combination of two different physical processes: (i) evident seasonal cycles in the tropical eastern Atlantic Ocean, which modulate convection and rainfall near the Gulf of Guinea by means of SST thermal forcing and SST-related meridional gradient; and (ii) the interaction among the AEJ, TEJ, low-level westerly flow, moist convection, and AEWs during July–September, which modulates rainfall variability in the interior of West Africa, primarily within the ITCZ rain band. Evident seasonality in synoptic-scale wave signals is shown to be a good indication of this seasonal evolution.

Abstract

The effects of ENSO and two large tropical volcanic eruptions (El Chichón, March 1982; Mt. Pinatubo, June 1991) are examined for the period of 1979–2008 using various satellite- and station-based observations of precipitation, temperature (surface and atmospheric), and tropospheric water vapor content. By focusing on the responses in the time series of tropical and global means over land, ocean, and land and ocean combined, the authors intend to provide an observational comparison of how these two phenomena, represented by Niño-3.4 and the tropical mean stratospheric aerosol optical thickness (τ), respectively, influence precipitation, temperature, and water vapor variations.

As discovered in past studies, strong same-sign ENSO signals appear in tropical and global mean temperature (surface and tropospheric) over both land and ocean. However, ENSO only has very weak impact on tropical and global mean (land + ocean) precipitation, though intense anomalies are readily seen in the time series of precipitation averaged over either land or ocean. In contrast, the two volcanoes decreased not only tropical and global mean surface and tropospheric temperature but also tropical and global mean (land + ocean) precipitation. The differences between the responses to ENSO and volcanic eruptions are thus further examined by means of lag-correlation analyses. The ENSO-related peak responses in oceanic precipitation and sea surface temperature (SST) have the same time lags with Niño-3.4, 2 (4) months for the tropical (global) means. Tropical and global mean tropospheric water vapor over ocean (and land) generally follows surface temperature. However, land precipitation responds to ENSO much faster than temperature, suggesting a certain time needed for surface energy adjustment there following ENSO-related circulation and precipitation anomalies. Weak ENSO signals in the tropical and global mean mid- to lower-tropospheric atmospheric (dry) static instability are further discovered, which tend to be consistent with weak ENSO responses in the tropical and global mean (land + ocean) precipitation. For volcanic eruptions, tropical and global mean precipitation over either ocean or land responds faster than temperature (surface and atmospheric) and tropospheric water vapor averaged over the same areas, suggesting that precipitation tends to be more sensitive to volcanic-related solar forcing. The volcanic-related precipitation variations are further shown to be related to the changes in the mid- to lower-tropospheric atmospheric (dry) instability.

Abstract

This study examines global precipitation changes/variations during 1901–2010 by using the long-record GPCC land precipitation analysis, the NOAA/Cooperative Institute for Climate and Satellites (CICS) reconstructed (RECONS) precipitation analysis, and the CMIP5 outputs. In particular, spatial features of long-term precipitation changes and trends and decadal/interdecadal precipitation variations are explored by focusing on the effects of various physical mechanisms such as the anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) and aerosol forcings and certain internal oscillations including the Pacific decadal variability (PDV) and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation (AMO).

Precipitation increases in the Northern Hemisphere (NH) mid- to high-latitude lands observed in GPCC can also be found in RECONS and model simulations. Over tropical/subtropical land areas, precipitation reductions generally appear in all products, but with large discrepancies on regional scales. Over ocean, consistent spatial structures of precipitation change also exist between RECONS and models. It is further found that these long-term changes/trends might be due to both anthropogenic GHG and aerosols. The aerosol effect estimated from CMIP5 historical simulations is then removed from the GPCC, RECONS, and AMIP simulations. These isolated GHG-related changes/trends have many similar spatial features when compared to the CMIP5 GHG-only simulations, especially in the zonal-mean context.

Both PDV and AMO have influence on spatial patterns of precipitation variations during the past century. In the NH middle to high latitudes, PDV and AMO have played an important role on interdecadal/multidecadal time scales. In several tropical/subtropical regions, their impacts may even become dominant for certain time spans including the recent past two decades. Therefore, these two internal mechanisms make the estimations of GHG and aerosol effects on precipitation on decadal/interdecadal time scales very challenging, especially on regional scales.

Abstract

Tropical (30°N–30°S) interdecadal precipitation changes and trends are explored for the satellite era using GPCP monthly analyses and CMIP5 outputs and focusing on precipitation intensity distributions represented by percentiles (Pct) and other parameters. Positive trends occur for the upper percentiles (Pct ≥ 70th), and become statistically significant for Pct ≥ 80th. Negative trends appear for the middle one-half percentiles (~20th–65th) and are statistically significant for the 20th–40th percentiles. As part of these trends there is a decadal shift around 1998, indicating the presence of an interdecadal [Pacific decadal oscillation (PDO)] signal. For the lower percentiles (Pct ≤ 10th), positive trends occur, although weakly. The AMIP-type simulations generally show similar trend results for their respective time periods.

Precipitation intensity changes are further examined using four precipitation categories based on the climatological percentiles: Wet (Pct ≥ 70th), Intermediate (70th > Pct ≥ 30th), Dry (30th > Pct ≥ 5th), and No Rain (5th > Pct ≥ 0th). Epoch differences of occurrence frequency between 1988–97 and 1998–2015 have spatial features generally reflecting the combined effect of the PDO and external forcings, specifically the anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG)-related warming based on comparisons with both AMIP and CMIP results. Furthermore, precipitation intensity over Wet zones shows much stronger changes than mean precipitation including a more prominent change around 1998 associated with the PDO phase shift. Trends also appear in the sizes of Intermediate and Dry zones, especially over ocean. However, changes in the sizes of Wet and No Rain zones are generally weak. AMIP simulations reproduce these changes relatively well. Comparisons with the CMIP5 historical experiments further confirm that the observed changes and trends are a combination of the effect of the PDO phase shift and the impact of anthropogenic GHG-related warming.

Abstract

As one major source of forecasting errors in tropical cyclone intensity, rapid weakening of tropical cyclones [an intensity reduction of 20 kt (1 kt = 0.51 m s⁻¹) or more over a 24-h period] over the tropical open ocean can result from the interaction between tropical cyclones and monsoon gyres. This study aims to examine rapid weakening events occurring in monsoon gyres in the tropical western North Pacific (WNP) basin during May–October 2000–14.

Although less than one-third of rapid weakening events happened in the tropical WNP basin south of 25°N, more than 40% of them were associated with monsoon gyres. About 85% of rapid weakening events in monsoon gyres occurred in September and October. The rapid weakening events associated with monsoon gyres are usually observed near the center of monsoon gyres when tropical cyclone tracks make a sudden northward turn. The gyres can enlarge the outer size of tropical cyclones and tend to induce prolonged rapid weakening events with an average duration of 33.2 h. Large-scale environmental factors, including sea surface temperature changes, vertical wind shear, and midlevel environmental humidity, are not primary contributors to them, suggesting the possible effect of monsoon gyres on these rapid weakening events by modulating the tropical cyclone structure. This conclusion is conducive to improving operational forecasts of tropical cyclone intensity.

Abstract

The research explores the applicability of the gridded (level 3) monthly tropospheric water vapor (version 5) retrievals from the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) instrument and the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit (AMSU) on board the NASA Aqua satellite over the Tibetan Plateau by comparing them with carefully processed radiosonde data. Local correlation analyses indicate that below 200 hPa, the AIRS/AMSU monthly water vapor retrievals are highly consistent with radiosondes over the whole plateau region, especially in the southeastern part and between 300 and 600 hPa. Relative deviation analyses further show that the differences between monthly mean AIRS/AMSU water vapor retrieval data and radiosondes are, in general, small below 250 hPa, in particular between 300 and 600 hPa and in high-altitude areas. Combined with a further direct comparison between AIRS/AMSU water vapor vertical retrievals and radiosonde observations averaged over the entire domain, these results suggest that the gridded monthly AIRS/AMSU water vapor retrievals can provide a very good account of spatial patterns and temporal variations in tropospheric water vapor content in the Tibetan Plateau region, in particular below 200 hPa. However, differences between AIRS/AMSU retrievals and radiosondes are seen at various levels, in particular above the level of 250 hPa. Therefore, for detailed quantitative analyses of water budget in the atmosphere and the entire water cycle, AIRS/AMSU retrieval data may need to be corrected or trained using radiosondes. Two fitting functions are derived for warm and cold seasons, although the seasonal difference is generally small.

Abstract

A procedure is described to estimate bias errors for mean precipitation by using multiple estimates from different algorithms, satellite sources, and merged products. The Global Precipitation Climatology Project (GPCP) monthly product is used as a base precipitation estimate, with other input products included when they are within ±50% of the GPCP estimates on a zonal-mean basis (ocean and land separately). The standard deviation σ of the included products is then taken to be the estimated systematic, or bias, error. The results allow one to examine monthly climatologies and the annual climatology, producing maps of estimated bias errors, zonal-mean errors, and estimated errors over large areas such as ocean and land for both the tropics and the globe. For ocean areas, where there is the largest question as to absolute magnitude of precipitation, the analysis shows spatial variations in the estimated bias errors, indicating areas where one should have more or less confidence in the mean precipitation estimates. In the tropics, relative bias error estimates (σ/μ, where μ is the mean precipitation) over the eastern Pacific Ocean are as large as 20%, as compared with 10%–15% in the western Pacific part of the ITCZ. An examination of latitudinal differences over ocean clearly shows an increase in estimated bias error at higher latitudes, reaching up to 50%. Over land, the error estimates also locate regions of potential problems in the tropics and larger cold-season errors at high latitudes that are due to snow. An empirical technique to area average the gridded errors (σ) is described that allows one to make error estimates for arbitrary areas and for the tropics and the globe (land and ocean separately, and combined). Over the tropics this calculation leads to a relative error estimate for tropical land and ocean combined of 7%, which is considered to be an upper bound because of the lack of sign-of-the-error canceling when integrating over different areas with a different number of input products. For the globe the calculated relative error estimate from this study is about 9%, which is also probably a slight overestimate. These tropical and global estimated bias errors provide one estimate of the current state of knowledge of the planet’s mean precipitation.

Abstract

The 6-yr (1998–2003) rainfall products from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) are used to quantify the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) in the eastern Pacific (defined by longitudinal averages over 90°–130°W) during boreal spring (March–April). The double-ITCZ phenomenon, represented by the occurrence of two maxima with respect to latitude in monthly mean rainfall, is observed in most but not all of the years studied. The relative spatial locations of maxima in sea surface temperature (SST), rainfall, and surface pressure are examined. Interannual and weekly variability are characterized in SST, rainfall, surface convergence, total column water vapor, and cloud water. There appears to be a competition for rainfall between the two hemispheres during this season. When one of the two rainfall maxima is particularly strong, the other tends to be weak, with the total rainfall integrated over the two varying less than does the difference between the rainfall integrated over each separately. There is some evidence for a similar competition between the SST maxima in the two hemispheres, but this is more ambiguous, and there is evidence that some variations in the relative strengths of the two rainfall maxima may be independent of SST.

Using a 25-yr (1979–2003) monthly rainfall dataset from the Global Precipitation Climatology Project (GPCP), four distinct ITCZ types during March–April are defined, based on the relative strengths of rainfall peaks north and south of, and right over, the equator. Composite meridional profiles and spatial distributions of rainfall and SST are documented for each type. Consistent with previous studies, an equatorial cold tongue is essential to the existence of the double ITCZs. However, too strong a cold tongue may dampen either the southern or northern rainfall maximum, depending on the magnitude of SST north of the equator.