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- Author or Editor: Hiroyuki Murakami x
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Abstract
Possible future change in tropical cyclone (TC) activity over the North Atlantic (NA) was investigated by comparison of 25-yr simulations of the present-day climate and future change under the A1B emission scenario using a 20-km-mesh Meteorological Research Institute (MRI) and Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) atmospheric general circulation model. The present-day simulation reproduces many essential features of observed climatology and interannual variability in TC frequency of occurrence and tracks over the NA. For the future projection, the model is driven by the sea surface temperature (SST) that includes a trend projected by the most recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) multimodel ensemble and a year-to-year variation derived from the present-day climate. A major finding is that the future change of total TC counts in the NA is statistically insignificant, but the frequency of TC occurrence will decrease in the tropical western NA (WNA) and increase in the tropical eastern NA (ENA) and northwestern NA (NWNA). The projected change in TC tracks suggests a reduced probability of TC landfall over the southeastern United States, and an increased influence of TCs on the northeastern United States. The track changes are not due to changes of large-scale steering flows; instead, they are due to changes in TC genesis locations. The increase in TC genesis in the ENA arises from increasing background ascending motion and convective available potential energy. In contrast, the reduced TC genesis in the WNA is attributed to decreases in midtropospheric relative humidity and ascending motion caused by remotely forced anomalous descent. This finding indicates that the impact of remote dynamical forcing is greater than that of local thermodynamical forcing in the WNA. The increased frequency of TC occurrence in the NWNA is attributed to reduced vertical wind shear and the pronounced local warming of the ocean surface. These TC changes appear to be most sensitive to future change in the spatial distribution of rising SST. Given that most IPCC models project a larger increase in SST in the ENA than in the WNA, the projected eastward shift in TC genesis is likely to be robust.
Abstract
Possible future change in tropical cyclone (TC) activity over the North Atlantic (NA) was investigated by comparison of 25-yr simulations of the present-day climate and future change under the A1B emission scenario using a 20-km-mesh Meteorological Research Institute (MRI) and Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) atmospheric general circulation model. The present-day simulation reproduces many essential features of observed climatology and interannual variability in TC frequency of occurrence and tracks over the NA. For the future projection, the model is driven by the sea surface temperature (SST) that includes a trend projected by the most recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) multimodel ensemble and a year-to-year variation derived from the present-day climate. A major finding is that the future change of total TC counts in the NA is statistically insignificant, but the frequency of TC occurrence will decrease in the tropical western NA (WNA) and increase in the tropical eastern NA (ENA) and northwestern NA (NWNA). The projected change in TC tracks suggests a reduced probability of TC landfall over the southeastern United States, and an increased influence of TCs on the northeastern United States. The track changes are not due to changes of large-scale steering flows; instead, they are due to changes in TC genesis locations. The increase in TC genesis in the ENA arises from increasing background ascending motion and convective available potential energy. In contrast, the reduced TC genesis in the WNA is attributed to decreases in midtropospheric relative humidity and ascending motion caused by remotely forced anomalous descent. This finding indicates that the impact of remote dynamical forcing is greater than that of local thermodynamical forcing in the WNA. The increased frequency of TC occurrence in the NWNA is attributed to reduced vertical wind shear and the pronounced local warming of the ocean surface. These TC changes appear to be most sensitive to future change in the spatial distribution of rising SST. Given that most IPCC models project a larger increase in SST in the ENA than in the WNA, the projected eastward shift in TC genesis is likely to be robust.
Abstract
Projected future changes in tropical cyclone (TC) activity over the western North Pacific (WNP) under the Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES) A1B emission scenario were investigated using a 20-km-mesh, very-high-resolution Meteorological Research Institute (MRI)–Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) atmospheric general circulation model. The present-day (1979–2003) simulation yielded reasonably realistic climatology and interannual variability for TC genesis frequency and tracks.
The future (2075–99) projection indicates (i) a significant reduction (by about 23%) in both TC genesis number and frequency of occurrence primarily during the late part of the year (September–December), (ii) an eastward shift in the positions of the two prevailing northward-recurving TC tracks during the peak TC season (July–October), and (iii) a significant reduction (by 44%) in TC frequency approaching coastal regions of Southeast Asia.
The changes in occurrence frequency are due in part to changes in large-scale steering flows, but they are due mainly to changes in the locations of TC genesis; fewer TCs will form in the western portion of the WNP (west of 145°E), whereas more storms will form in the southeastern quadrant of the WNP (10°–20°N, 145°–160°E). Analysis of the genesis potential index reveals that the reduced TC genesis in the western WNP is due mainly to in situ weakening of large-scale ascent and decreasing midtropospheric relative humidity, which are associated with the enhanced descent of the tropical overturning circulation. The analysis also indicates that enhanced TC genesis in the southeastern WNP is due to increased low-level cyclonic vorticity and reduced vertical wind shear. These changes appear to be critically dependent on the spatial pattern of future sea surface temperature; therefore, it is necessary to conduct ensemble projections with a range of SST spatial patterns to understand the degree and distribution of uncertainty in future projections.
Abstract
Projected future changes in tropical cyclone (TC) activity over the western North Pacific (WNP) under the Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES) A1B emission scenario were investigated using a 20-km-mesh, very-high-resolution Meteorological Research Institute (MRI)–Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) atmospheric general circulation model. The present-day (1979–2003) simulation yielded reasonably realistic climatology and interannual variability for TC genesis frequency and tracks.
The future (2075–99) projection indicates (i) a significant reduction (by about 23%) in both TC genesis number and frequency of occurrence primarily during the late part of the year (September–December), (ii) an eastward shift in the positions of the two prevailing northward-recurving TC tracks during the peak TC season (July–October), and (iii) a significant reduction (by 44%) in TC frequency approaching coastal regions of Southeast Asia.
The changes in occurrence frequency are due in part to changes in large-scale steering flows, but they are due mainly to changes in the locations of TC genesis; fewer TCs will form in the western portion of the WNP (west of 145°E), whereas more storms will form in the southeastern quadrant of the WNP (10°–20°N, 145°–160°E). Analysis of the genesis potential index reveals that the reduced TC genesis in the western WNP is due mainly to in situ weakening of large-scale ascent and decreasing midtropospheric relative humidity, which are associated with the enhanced descent of the tropical overturning circulation. The analysis also indicates that enhanced TC genesis in the southeastern WNP is due to increased low-level cyclonic vorticity and reduced vertical wind shear. These changes appear to be critically dependent on the spatial pattern of future sea surface temperature; therefore, it is necessary to conduct ensemble projections with a range of SST spatial patterns to understand the degree and distribution of uncertainty in future projections.
Abstract
The role of zonal moisture asymmetry in the eastward propagation of the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) is investigated through a set of aquaplanet atmospheric general circulation model (AGCM) experiments with a zonally symmetric sea surface temperature distribution. In the control experiment, the model produces eastward-propagating MJO-like perturbations with a dominant period of 30–90 days. The model MJO exhibits a clear zonal asymmetry in the lower-tropospheric specific humidity field, with a positive (negative) anomaly appearing to the east (west) of the MJO convection. A diagnosis of the lower-tropospheric moisture budget indicates that the asymmetry primarily arises from vertical moisture advection associated with boundary layer convergence, while horizontal moisture advection has the opposite effect.
In a sensitivity experiment, the lower-tropospheric specific humidity field is relaxed toward a zonal-mean basic state derived from the control simulation. In this case, the model’s mean state remains the same, but its intraseasonal mode becomes quasi-stationary. The numerical model experiments clearly demonstrate the importance of the zonal moisture asymmetry in MJO eastward propagation.
Abstract
The role of zonal moisture asymmetry in the eastward propagation of the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) is investigated through a set of aquaplanet atmospheric general circulation model (AGCM) experiments with a zonally symmetric sea surface temperature distribution. In the control experiment, the model produces eastward-propagating MJO-like perturbations with a dominant period of 30–90 days. The model MJO exhibits a clear zonal asymmetry in the lower-tropospheric specific humidity field, with a positive (negative) anomaly appearing to the east (west) of the MJO convection. A diagnosis of the lower-tropospheric moisture budget indicates that the asymmetry primarily arises from vertical moisture advection associated with boundary layer convergence, while horizontal moisture advection has the opposite effect.
In a sensitivity experiment, the lower-tropospheric specific humidity field is relaxed toward a zonal-mean basic state derived from the control simulation. In this case, the model’s mean state remains the same, but its intraseasonal mode becomes quasi-stationary. The numerical model experiments clearly demonstrate the importance of the zonal moisture asymmetry in MJO eastward propagation.
Abstract
In recent decades, tropical cyclone (TC) activity in the North Atlantic has shown a marked positive anomaly in genesis number, mean lifespan, number of intense hurricanes, and mean maximum intensity. The accumulated cyclone energy (ACE), which is defined as the sum of the square of the maximum surface wind velocity throughout the lifetime of a TC, is one of the measures that can be used to synthesize these factors. Similar to the ACE, the power dissipation index (PDI), which is defined as the integrated third power of maximum surface wind velocity, has also been used to describe TC activity. The basin-total ACE and PDI for the North Atlantic have also followed a large positive anomaly during the period 1995–2012; however, the relative importance of factors such as TC genesis number, TC track property (e.g., duration and lifespan), and TC intensity remains unclear in terms of their contribution to the positive anomalies in ACE and PDI. This study uses a new empirical statistical approach to analyze the TC data and finds that the increase in the TC genesis number is primarily responsible for the positive anomalies in ACE and PDI. Other factors, such as TC track property and TC intensity, appear to be minor influences.
Abstract
In recent decades, tropical cyclone (TC) activity in the North Atlantic has shown a marked positive anomaly in genesis number, mean lifespan, number of intense hurricanes, and mean maximum intensity. The accumulated cyclone energy (ACE), which is defined as the sum of the square of the maximum surface wind velocity throughout the lifetime of a TC, is one of the measures that can be used to synthesize these factors. Similar to the ACE, the power dissipation index (PDI), which is defined as the integrated third power of maximum surface wind velocity, has also been used to describe TC activity. The basin-total ACE and PDI for the North Atlantic have also followed a large positive anomaly during the period 1995–2012; however, the relative importance of factors such as TC genesis number, TC track property (e.g., duration and lifespan), and TC intensity remains unclear in terms of their contribution to the positive anomalies in ACE and PDI. This study uses a new empirical statistical approach to analyze the TC data and finds that the increase in the TC genesis number is primarily responsible for the positive anomalies in ACE and PDI. Other factors, such as TC track property and TC intensity, appear to be minor influences.
Abstract
The authors have developed a new spectral cumulus parameterization scheme that explicitly considers an ensemble of multiple convective updrafts by interpolating in-cloud variables between two convective updrafts with large and small entrainment rates. This cumulus scheme has the advantages that the variables in entraining and detraining convective updrafts are calculated in detail layer by layer as in the Tiedtke scheme, and that a spectrum of convective updrafts with different heights due to the difference in entrainment rates is explicitly represented, as in the Arakawa–Schubert scheme. A conservative and monotonic semi-Lagrangian scheme is used for calculation of transport by convection-induced compensatory subsidence. Use of the semi-Lagrangian scheme relaxes the mass-flux limit due to the Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy (CFL) condition, and moreover ensures nonnegative natural material transport. A global atmospheric model using this cumulus scheme gives an atmospheric simulation that agrees well with the observational climatology.
Abstract
The authors have developed a new spectral cumulus parameterization scheme that explicitly considers an ensemble of multiple convective updrafts by interpolating in-cloud variables between two convective updrafts with large and small entrainment rates. This cumulus scheme has the advantages that the variables in entraining and detraining convective updrafts are calculated in detail layer by layer as in the Tiedtke scheme, and that a spectrum of convective updrafts with different heights due to the difference in entrainment rates is explicitly represented, as in the Arakawa–Schubert scheme. A conservative and monotonic semi-Lagrangian scheme is used for calculation of transport by convection-induced compensatory subsidence. Use of the semi-Lagrangian scheme relaxes the mass-flux limit due to the Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy (CFL) condition, and moreover ensures nonnegative natural material transport. A global atmospheric model using this cumulus scheme gives an atmospheric simulation that agrees well with the observational climatology.
Abstract
This paper performs an attribution analysis of future changes in the frequency of tropical cyclone (TC) passages over the western North Pacific basin projected by seven general circulation models. The models project increases in the passage frequency over the tropical central North Pacific and decreases in regions to the west and northwest, including East Asian countries. The attribution analysis reveals that while changes of the basinwide TC count would decrease the frequency of passages throughout the basin, the gross horizontal contrast in the passage frequency changes is caused by a projected eastward shift of main TC development regions, probably caused by El Niño–like sea surface temperature changes. The change in the frequency of passages is also caused by changes of TC translation vectors and preferable tracks. In particular, the translation vector would rotate clockwise to point in a more easterly direction over oceanic regions south of Japan, decreasing the passage frequency over the Korean peninsula and western Japan while increasing it over eastern Japan. This change in translation direction may be caused by the southward shift of the subtropical jet axis and resultant intensification of westerly steering flows. The El Niño–like change and westerly steering flow change are consistent not only among the seven models but also among a number of other climate models, which suggests the reliability of these results from the viewpoint of intermodel agreement.
Abstract
This paper performs an attribution analysis of future changes in the frequency of tropical cyclone (TC) passages over the western North Pacific basin projected by seven general circulation models. The models project increases in the passage frequency over the tropical central North Pacific and decreases in regions to the west and northwest, including East Asian countries. The attribution analysis reveals that while changes of the basinwide TC count would decrease the frequency of passages throughout the basin, the gross horizontal contrast in the passage frequency changes is caused by a projected eastward shift of main TC development regions, probably caused by El Niño–like sea surface temperature changes. The change in the frequency of passages is also caused by changes of TC translation vectors and preferable tracks. In particular, the translation vector would rotate clockwise to point in a more easterly direction over oceanic regions south of Japan, decreasing the passage frequency over the Korean peninsula and western Japan while increasing it over eastern Japan. This change in translation direction may be caused by the southward shift of the subtropical jet axis and resultant intensification of westerly steering flows. The El Niño–like change and westerly steering flow change are consistent not only among the seven models but also among a number of other climate models, which suggests the reliability of these results from the viewpoint of intermodel agreement.
Abstract
As one of the first global coupled climate models to simulate and predict category 4 and 5 (Saffir–Simpson scale) tropical cyclones (TCs) and their interannual variations, the High-Resolution Forecast-Oriented Low Ocean Resolution (HiFLOR) model at the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL) represents a novel source of insight on how the entire TC intensification distribution could be transformed because of climate change. In this study, three 70-yr HiFLOR experiments are performed to identify the effects of climate change on TC intensity and intensification. For each of the experiments, sea surface temperature (SST) is nudged to different climatological targets and atmospheric radiative forcing is specified, allowing us to explore the sensitivity of TCs to these conditions. First, a control experiment, which uses prescribed climatological ocean and radiative forcing based on observations during the years 1986–2005, is compared to two observational records and evaluated for its ability to capture the mean TC behavior during these years. The simulated intensification distributions as well as the percentage of TCs that become major hurricanes show similarities with observations. The control experiment is then compared to two twenty-first-century experiments, in which the climatological SSTs from the control experiment are perturbed by multimodel projected SST anomalies and atmospheric radiative forcing from either 2016–35 or 2081–2100 (RCP4.5 scenario). The frequency, intensity, and intensification distribution of TCs all shift to higher values as the twenty-first century progresses. HiFLOR’s unique response to climate change and fidelity in simulating the present climate lays the groundwork for future studies involving models of this type.
Abstract
As one of the first global coupled climate models to simulate and predict category 4 and 5 (Saffir–Simpson scale) tropical cyclones (TCs) and their interannual variations, the High-Resolution Forecast-Oriented Low Ocean Resolution (HiFLOR) model at the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL) represents a novel source of insight on how the entire TC intensification distribution could be transformed because of climate change. In this study, three 70-yr HiFLOR experiments are performed to identify the effects of climate change on TC intensity and intensification. For each of the experiments, sea surface temperature (SST) is nudged to different climatological targets and atmospheric radiative forcing is specified, allowing us to explore the sensitivity of TCs to these conditions. First, a control experiment, which uses prescribed climatological ocean and radiative forcing based on observations during the years 1986–2005, is compared to two observational records and evaluated for its ability to capture the mean TC behavior during these years. The simulated intensification distributions as well as the percentage of TCs that become major hurricanes show similarities with observations. The control experiment is then compared to two twenty-first-century experiments, in which the climatological SSTs from the control experiment are perturbed by multimodel projected SST anomalies and atmospheric radiative forcing from either 2016–35 or 2081–2100 (RCP4.5 scenario). The frequency, intensity, and intensification distribution of TCs all shift to higher values as the twenty-first century progresses. HiFLOR’s unique response to climate change and fidelity in simulating the present climate lays the groundwork for future studies involving models of this type.
Abstract
The influence of model biases on projected future changes in the frequency of occurrence of tropical cyclones (FOCs) was investigated using a new empirical statistical method. Assessments were made of present-day (1979–2003) simulations and future (2075–99) projections, using atmospheric general circulation models under the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) A1B scenario and phase 5 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5) models under the representative concentration pathway (RCP) 4.5 and 8.5 scenarios. The models project significant decreases in global-total FOCs by approximately 6%–40%; however, model biases introduce an uncertainty of approximately 10% in the total future changes. The influence of biases depends on the model physics rather than model resolutions and emission scenarios. In general, the biases result in overestimates of projected future changes in basin-total FOCs in the north Indian Ocean (by +18%) and South Atlantic Ocean (+143%) and underestimates in the western North Pacific Ocean (−27%), eastern North Pacific Ocean (−29%), and North Atlantic Ocean (−53%). The calibration of model performance using the smaller bias influence appears crucial to deriving meaningful signals in future FOC projections. To obtain more reliable projections, ensemble averages were calculated using the models less influence by model biases. Results indicate marked decreases in projected FOCs in the basins of the Southern Hemisphere, Bay of Bengal, western North Pacific Ocean, eastern North Pacific, and Caribbean Sea and increases in the Arabian Sea and the subtropical central Pacific Ocean.
Abstract
The influence of model biases on projected future changes in the frequency of occurrence of tropical cyclones (FOCs) was investigated using a new empirical statistical method. Assessments were made of present-day (1979–2003) simulations and future (2075–99) projections, using atmospheric general circulation models under the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) A1B scenario and phase 5 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5) models under the representative concentration pathway (RCP) 4.5 and 8.5 scenarios. The models project significant decreases in global-total FOCs by approximately 6%–40%; however, model biases introduce an uncertainty of approximately 10% in the total future changes. The influence of biases depends on the model physics rather than model resolutions and emission scenarios. In general, the biases result in overestimates of projected future changes in basin-total FOCs in the north Indian Ocean (by +18%) and South Atlantic Ocean (+143%) and underestimates in the western North Pacific Ocean (−27%), eastern North Pacific Ocean (−29%), and North Atlantic Ocean (−53%). The calibration of model performance using the smaller bias influence appears crucial to deriving meaningful signals in future FOC projections. To obtain more reliable projections, ensemble averages were calculated using the models less influence by model biases. Results indicate marked decreases in projected FOCs in the basins of the Southern Hemisphere, Bay of Bengal, western North Pacific Ocean, eastern North Pacific, and Caribbean Sea and increases in the Arabian Sea and the subtropical central Pacific Ocean.
Abstract
In 1995 an abrupt shift in the late-season (October–December) typhoon activity over the western North Pacific (WNP) is detected by a Bayesian changepoint analysis. Interestingly, a similar change also occurs in the late-season sea surface temperature series over the western Pacific, eastern North Pacific, and portions of the Indian Ocean. All of the counts, lifespans, and accumulated cyclone energy of the late-season typhoons during the 1995–2011 epoch decreased significantly, compared with typhoons that occurred during the 1979–94 epoch. The negative vorticity anomaly is found to be the leading contributor to the genesis potential index (GPI) decrease over the southeastern sector of the WNP during 1995–2011. To elucidate the origin of the epochal change in the dynamic environmental conditions, a suite of sensitivity experiments is conducted based on the latest version of the Japan Meteorological Research Institute atmospheric general circulation model (MRI AGCM). The ensemble simulations suggest that the recent change to a La Niña–like state induces an unfavorable dynamic condition for typhoon genesis over the southeastern WNP. Warming in the Indian Ocean, however, contributes insignificantly to the circulation anomaly related to typhoon genesis over the southeastern WNP. The frequency of typhoon occurrence reveals a basinwide decrease over the WNP in the recent epoch, except for a small increase near Taiwan. An empirical statistical analysis shows that the basinwide decrease in the frequency of the typhoon occurrence is primarily attributed to a decrease in typhoon genesis, while the change in track is of less importance.
Abstract
In 1995 an abrupt shift in the late-season (October–December) typhoon activity over the western North Pacific (WNP) is detected by a Bayesian changepoint analysis. Interestingly, a similar change also occurs in the late-season sea surface temperature series over the western Pacific, eastern North Pacific, and portions of the Indian Ocean. All of the counts, lifespans, and accumulated cyclone energy of the late-season typhoons during the 1995–2011 epoch decreased significantly, compared with typhoons that occurred during the 1979–94 epoch. The negative vorticity anomaly is found to be the leading contributor to the genesis potential index (GPI) decrease over the southeastern sector of the WNP during 1995–2011. To elucidate the origin of the epochal change in the dynamic environmental conditions, a suite of sensitivity experiments is conducted based on the latest version of the Japan Meteorological Research Institute atmospheric general circulation model (MRI AGCM). The ensemble simulations suggest that the recent change to a La Niña–like state induces an unfavorable dynamic condition for typhoon genesis over the southeastern WNP. Warming in the Indian Ocean, however, contributes insignificantly to the circulation anomaly related to typhoon genesis over the southeastern WNP. The frequency of typhoon occurrence reveals a basinwide decrease over the WNP in the recent epoch, except for a small increase near Taiwan. An empirical statistical analysis shows that the basinwide decrease in the frequency of the typhoon occurrence is primarily attributed to a decrease in typhoon genesis, while the change in track is of less importance.
