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Abstract
A method was investigated to estimate broadband surface shortwave albedo from the narrowband reflectances obtained by the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometers (AVHRRs) on board the polar orbiting satellites. Field experiments were conducted to measure simultaneously multispectral narrowband reflectances and broadband albedo over various vegetation and soil surfaces. These data were combined to examine the behavior of narrowband-to-broadband (NTB) conversion factors for different surfaces. Many previous studies have used constant NTB conversion factors for the AVHRR data. The results from this investigation indicate that the optimal NTB conversion factors for AVHRR channels 1 and 2 have a strong dependence on the amount of green vegetation within the field of view. Two conversion factors, f 1 and f 2, were established to quantify, respectively, 1) the relationship between the reflectance in the narrow red wave band and the total reflectance within the whole visible subregion (0.3–0.685 μm) and 2) the relationship between the reflectance in the narrow near-infrared wave band and the total reflectance within the whole near-infrared subregion (0.685–2.8 μm). Values of f 1 and f 2, calculated from field data, correlated well with the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), largely because of the unique characteristics of light absorption and scattering within the red and near-infrared wave bands by green leaves. The f 1–NDVI and f 2–NDVI relationships developed from this study were used to infer empirical coefficients needed to estimate surface albedo from AVHRR data. The surface albedo values calculated by the new method agreed with ground-based measurements within a root-mean-square error of 0.02, which is better than other methods that use constant empirical coefficients. Testing with albedo measurements made by unmanned aerospace vehicles during a field campaign also indicates that the new method provides an improved estimate of surface albedo.
Abstract
A method was investigated to estimate broadband surface shortwave albedo from the narrowband reflectances obtained by the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometers (AVHRRs) on board the polar orbiting satellites. Field experiments were conducted to measure simultaneously multispectral narrowband reflectances and broadband albedo over various vegetation and soil surfaces. These data were combined to examine the behavior of narrowband-to-broadband (NTB) conversion factors for different surfaces. Many previous studies have used constant NTB conversion factors for the AVHRR data. The results from this investigation indicate that the optimal NTB conversion factors for AVHRR channels 1 and 2 have a strong dependence on the amount of green vegetation within the field of view. Two conversion factors, f 1 and f 2, were established to quantify, respectively, 1) the relationship between the reflectance in the narrow red wave band and the total reflectance within the whole visible subregion (0.3–0.685 μm) and 2) the relationship between the reflectance in the narrow near-infrared wave band and the total reflectance within the whole near-infrared subregion (0.685–2.8 μm). Values of f 1 and f 2, calculated from field data, correlated well with the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), largely because of the unique characteristics of light absorption and scattering within the red and near-infrared wave bands by green leaves. The f 1–NDVI and f 2–NDVI relationships developed from this study were used to infer empirical coefficients needed to estimate surface albedo from AVHRR data. The surface albedo values calculated by the new method agreed with ground-based measurements within a root-mean-square error of 0.02, which is better than other methods that use constant empirical coefficients. Testing with albedo measurements made by unmanned aerospace vehicles during a field campaign also indicates that the new method provides an improved estimate of surface albedo.
Abstract
Large-eddy simulation (LES) is used to examine the impact of heterogeneity in the surface energy balance on the mesoscale and microscale structure of the convective atmospheric boundary layer (ABL). A long (16 or 32 km) and narrow (5 km) domain of the convective ABL is forced with an imposed surface heat flux consisting of a constant background flux of 0.20 K m s−1 (250 W m−2) added to a sinusoidal perturbation of 16 or 32 km and whose amplitude varies from 0.02 to 0.20 K m s−1 (25–250 W m−2). The output is analyzed using a spatial filter, spectral analyses, and a wave-cutoff filter to show how the mesoscale and microscale components of the ABL respond to surface heterogeneity.
The ABL response is divided by amplitude of heterogeneity into oscillatory and nonoscillatory mesoscale flows, with amplitudes of 0.08 K m s−1 (100 W m−2) and greater being oscillatory. Although mean ABL structure is disturbed relative to the homogeneous case for all heterogeneous cases, the microscale structure of the ABL in the quasi-steady flows retains characteristics of mixed-layer similarity. The vertical sensible heat flux is dominated in all cases by the microscale flux, with an interscale term becoming significant for high-amplitude cases and the mesoscale flux remaining small in all cases. Prior observations of ABLs over heterogeneous surfaces are consistent with the lower-amplitude cases. These results contradict past studies that suggest that heterogeneous surfaces lead to large mesoscale fluxes. The interscale flux and oscillatory microscale structures raise questions about the ability of mesoscale models to properly simulate the ABL in high-amplitude heterogeneity.
Abstract
Large-eddy simulation (LES) is used to examine the impact of heterogeneity in the surface energy balance on the mesoscale and microscale structure of the convective atmospheric boundary layer (ABL). A long (16 or 32 km) and narrow (5 km) domain of the convective ABL is forced with an imposed surface heat flux consisting of a constant background flux of 0.20 K m s−1 (250 W m−2) added to a sinusoidal perturbation of 16 or 32 km and whose amplitude varies from 0.02 to 0.20 K m s−1 (25–250 W m−2). The output is analyzed using a spatial filter, spectral analyses, and a wave-cutoff filter to show how the mesoscale and microscale components of the ABL respond to surface heterogeneity.
The ABL response is divided by amplitude of heterogeneity into oscillatory and nonoscillatory mesoscale flows, with amplitudes of 0.08 K m s−1 (100 W m−2) and greater being oscillatory. Although mean ABL structure is disturbed relative to the homogeneous case for all heterogeneous cases, the microscale structure of the ABL in the quasi-steady flows retains characteristics of mixed-layer similarity. The vertical sensible heat flux is dominated in all cases by the microscale flux, with an interscale term becoming significant for high-amplitude cases and the mesoscale flux remaining small in all cases. Prior observations of ABLs over heterogeneous surfaces are consistent with the lower-amplitude cases. These results contradict past studies that suggest that heterogeneous surfaces lead to large mesoscale fluxes. The interscale flux and oscillatory microscale structures raise questions about the ability of mesoscale models to properly simulate the ABL in high-amplitude heterogeneity.
Abstract
We seek relationships between the perturbation kinetic energy (PKE), the zonal wind, and outgoing longwave radiation. It is found that the mean low-level PKE extratropical maxima are located at the “atmospheric centers of action” (e.g., the Aleutian and Iceland lows), which lie beneath the high-level PKE-maxima downstream of the westerly jet streams. As expected, this means that the PKE maxima in the middle latitudes are closely related to the propagating disturbances. In the tropics, however, the high-level PKE maxima and minima are located in the strongest upper tropospheric westerlies and easterlies, respectively, while the low-level PKE maxima and minima are located in the monsoon systems and the easterly trade winds, respectively. It is also found that the maxima and minima of the PKE in the middle latitudes, at least in the Northern Hemisphere, are in phase in the vertical but completely out of phase in the tropics. These features are closely linked to the structure of the zonal wind component.
The hypothesis is posed that in the tropics, the PKE maxima in the upper troposphere are related to the tropical-extratropical atmospheric interaction, to the equatorially trapped transient modes which are presumably created in the convective regions, or to a combination of both processes.
Abstract
We seek relationships between the perturbation kinetic energy (PKE), the zonal wind, and outgoing longwave radiation. It is found that the mean low-level PKE extratropical maxima are located at the “atmospheric centers of action” (e.g., the Aleutian and Iceland lows), which lie beneath the high-level PKE-maxima downstream of the westerly jet streams. As expected, this means that the PKE maxima in the middle latitudes are closely related to the propagating disturbances. In the tropics, however, the high-level PKE maxima and minima are located in the strongest upper tropospheric westerlies and easterlies, respectively, while the low-level PKE maxima and minima are located in the monsoon systems and the easterly trade winds, respectively. It is also found that the maxima and minima of the PKE in the middle latitudes, at least in the Northern Hemisphere, are in phase in the vertical but completely out of phase in the tropics. These features are closely linked to the structure of the zonal wind component.
The hypothesis is posed that in the tropics, the PKE maxima in the upper troposphere are related to the tropical-extratropical atmospheric interaction, to the equatorially trapped transient modes which are presumably created in the convective regions, or to a combination of both processes.
Abstract
Plumb's formulation of the stationary wave activity flux is used to determine how well versions of the GFDL and NCAR general circulation models simulate the sources, sinks, and horizontal propagation of atmospheric stationary waves, which play an important role in determining regional climate. The wave activity flux provides insight into the simulation of nondynamic as well as dynamic processes in these models. Model performances for current climate simulations are evaluated with respect to NMC analyses averaged over 1978–1990.
The models fare best when the stationary wave forcing is strongest, that is, in the wintertime Northern Hemisphere, where they reproduce the observed three-branch structure of upward wave activity flux. For the Northern Hemisphere summer and the Southern Hemisphere in both summer and winter, the models show less agreement with observations, although they do simulate the generally downward flux observed during Northern Hemisphere summer, which the analysis suggests is caused by convection. C02-doubling changes in the wave activity flux show little consistency between the two models. The analysis suggests that accurate modeling of stationary wave activity flux is strongly dependent on diabatic forcing, especially that occurring in storm tracks. Improving the simulation of stationary wave activity forcing requires a much better understanding of the physics governing storm tracks and latent heat release in the atmosphere, so that improvements in stationary wave simulation in these models will not occur by simply increasing model resolution.
Abstract
Plumb's formulation of the stationary wave activity flux is used to determine how well versions of the GFDL and NCAR general circulation models simulate the sources, sinks, and horizontal propagation of atmospheric stationary waves, which play an important role in determining regional climate. The wave activity flux provides insight into the simulation of nondynamic as well as dynamic processes in these models. Model performances for current climate simulations are evaluated with respect to NMC analyses averaged over 1978–1990.
The models fare best when the stationary wave forcing is strongest, that is, in the wintertime Northern Hemisphere, where they reproduce the observed three-branch structure of upward wave activity flux. For the Northern Hemisphere summer and the Southern Hemisphere in both summer and winter, the models show less agreement with observations, although they do simulate the generally downward flux observed during Northern Hemisphere summer, which the analysis suggests is caused by convection. C02-doubling changes in the wave activity flux show little consistency between the two models. The analysis suggests that accurate modeling of stationary wave activity flux is strongly dependent on diabatic forcing, especially that occurring in storm tracks. Improving the simulation of stationary wave activity forcing requires a much better understanding of the physics governing storm tracks and latent heat release in the atmosphere, so that improvements in stationary wave simulation in these models will not occur by simply increasing model resolution.
Abstract
An available potential energy budget analysis is presented for an area and period (0000 GMT 3 April-1200 GMT 4 April 1974) spanning the lift cycle of a severe storm-producing extratropical cyclone which moved across the central United States. Included are diabatic heating estimates. Among these, total latent heat release and longwave radiation contribute significant positive and negative values, respectively. Total latent heat release is generally in good agreement with observed weather features and cyclone development.
Budget results show that during the development of the extratropical cyclone the available potential energy within the region under investigation increases. Diabatic generation is a source of available potential energy, but its value is rather small when compared with other budget terms. Available potential energy generation primarily results from convective latent heat release ahead of the cold front in the warm sector. A large amount of total potential energy is released; however, only a small portion is converted into kinetic energy within the system. Horizontal transport of available potential energy is always a significant source of available potential energy.
Abstract
An available potential energy budget analysis is presented for an area and period (0000 GMT 3 April-1200 GMT 4 April 1974) spanning the lift cycle of a severe storm-producing extratropical cyclone which moved across the central United States. Included are diabatic heating estimates. Among these, total latent heat release and longwave radiation contribute significant positive and negative values, respectively. Total latent heat release is generally in good agreement with observed weather features and cyclone development.
Budget results show that during the development of the extratropical cyclone the available potential energy within the region under investigation increases. Diabatic generation is a source of available potential energy, but its value is rather small when compared with other budget terms. Available potential energy generation primarily results from convective latent heat release ahead of the cold front in the warm sector. A large amount of total potential energy is released; however, only a small portion is converted into kinetic energy within the system. Horizontal transport of available potential energy is always a significant source of available potential energy.
Abstract
Diabatic heating by latent heat release and longwave radiation and corresponding generation of available potential energy have been computed for a tornado-producing cyclone system. Also, the contributions of two subareas, encompassing the immediate cyclone vicinity and the convection area, to the cyclone system generation are examined applying the concepts of limited region baroclinic and barotropic generation.
Heating values, which are dominated by convective latent heat release, are generally in good agreement with observed weather features and cyclone development. The resulting positive cyclone system generation is comparable with previous studies and is strongly influenced by the contributions made by the two subareas. In turn, the latter are dominated by their. barotropic components, indicating that the heating fields in these subareas contribute more effectively to increasing or maintaining the baroclinicity of the cyclone system than of the subareas themselves.
Abstract
Diabatic heating by latent heat release and longwave radiation and corresponding generation of available potential energy have been computed for a tornado-producing cyclone system. Also, the contributions of two subareas, encompassing the immediate cyclone vicinity and the convection area, to the cyclone system generation are examined applying the concepts of limited region baroclinic and barotropic generation.
Heating values, which are dominated by convective latent heat release, are generally in good agreement with observed weather features and cyclone development. The resulting positive cyclone system generation is comparable with previous studies and is strongly influenced by the contributions made by the two subareas. In turn, the latter are dominated by their. barotropic components, indicating that the heating fields in these subareas contribute more effectively to increasing or maintaining the baroclinicity of the cyclone system than of the subareas themselves.
Abstract
Understanding the development and variation of the atmospheric circulation regimes driven by the Atlantic multidecadal oscillation (AMO) is essential because these circulations interact with other forcings on decadal and interannual time scales. Collectively, they determine the summer (June, July, and August) precipitation variations for North America. In this study, a general circulation model (GCM) is used to obtain such understanding, with a focus on physical processes connecting the AMO and the summertime precipitation regime change in North America. Two experimental runs are conducted with sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies imposed in the North Atlantic Ocean that represent the warm and cold phases of the AMO. Climatological SSTs are used elsewhere in the oceans. Model results yield summertime precipitation anomalies in North America closely matching the observed anomaly patterns in North America, suggesting that the AMO provides a fundamental control on summertime precipitation in North America at decadal time scales. The impacts of the AMO are achieved by a chain of events arising from different circulation anomalies during warm and cold phases of the AMO. During the warm phase, the North Atlantic subtropical high pressure system (NASH) weakens, and the North American continent is much less influenced by it. A massive body of warm air develops over the heated land in North America from June–August, associated with high temperature and low pressure anomalies in the lower troposphere and high pressure anomalies in the upper troposphere. In contrast, during the cold phase of the AMO, the North American continent, particularly to the west, is much more influenced by an enhanced NASH. Cooler temperatures and high pressure anomalies prevail in the lower troposphere, and a frontal zone forms in the upper troposphere. These different circulation anomalies further induce a three-cell circulation anomaly pattern over North America in the warm and cold phases of the AMO. In particular, during the cold phase, the three-cell circulation anomaly pattern features a broad region of anomalous low-level southerly flow from the Gulf of Mexico into the U.S. Great Plains. Superimposed with an upper-troposphere front, more frequent summertime storms develop and excess precipitation occurs over most of North America. A nearly reversed condition occurs during the warm phase of the AMO, yielding drier conditions in North America. This new understanding provides a foundation for further study and better prediction of the variations of North American summer precipitation, especially when modulated by other multidecadal variations—for example, the Pacific decadal oscillation and interannual variations associated with the ENSO and the Arctic Oscillation.
Abstract
Understanding the development and variation of the atmospheric circulation regimes driven by the Atlantic multidecadal oscillation (AMO) is essential because these circulations interact with other forcings on decadal and interannual time scales. Collectively, they determine the summer (June, July, and August) precipitation variations for North America. In this study, a general circulation model (GCM) is used to obtain such understanding, with a focus on physical processes connecting the AMO and the summertime precipitation regime change in North America. Two experimental runs are conducted with sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies imposed in the North Atlantic Ocean that represent the warm and cold phases of the AMO. Climatological SSTs are used elsewhere in the oceans. Model results yield summertime precipitation anomalies in North America closely matching the observed anomaly patterns in North America, suggesting that the AMO provides a fundamental control on summertime precipitation in North America at decadal time scales. The impacts of the AMO are achieved by a chain of events arising from different circulation anomalies during warm and cold phases of the AMO. During the warm phase, the North Atlantic subtropical high pressure system (NASH) weakens, and the North American continent is much less influenced by it. A massive body of warm air develops over the heated land in North America from June–August, associated with high temperature and low pressure anomalies in the lower troposphere and high pressure anomalies in the upper troposphere. In contrast, during the cold phase of the AMO, the North American continent, particularly to the west, is much more influenced by an enhanced NASH. Cooler temperatures and high pressure anomalies prevail in the lower troposphere, and a frontal zone forms in the upper troposphere. These different circulation anomalies further induce a three-cell circulation anomaly pattern over North America in the warm and cold phases of the AMO. In particular, during the cold phase, the three-cell circulation anomaly pattern features a broad region of anomalous low-level southerly flow from the Gulf of Mexico into the U.S. Great Plains. Superimposed with an upper-troposphere front, more frequent summertime storms develop and excess precipitation occurs over most of North America. A nearly reversed condition occurs during the warm phase of the AMO, yielding drier conditions in North America. This new understanding provides a foundation for further study and better prediction of the variations of North American summer precipitation, especially when modulated by other multidecadal variations—for example, the Pacific decadal oscillation and interannual variations associated with the ENSO and the Arctic Oscillation.
Abstract
Symmetric and wavenumber-1 asymmetric characteristics of western North Pacific tropical cyclone (TC) outer wind structures are compared between best tracks from the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) and the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) from 2004 to 2014 as well as the Multiplatform Tropical Cyclone Surface Wind Analysis (MTCSWA) product from 2007 to 2014. Significant linear relationships of averaged wind radii are obtained among datasets, in which both gale-force and storm-force wind radii are generally estimated slightly smaller (much larger) by JTWC (JMA) than by MTCSWA. These correlations are strongly related to TC intensity relationships discussed in earlier work. Moreover, JTWC (JMA) on average represents a smaller (greater) derived shape parameter than MTCSWA does, implying that JTWC (JMA) typically assesses a more compact (less compact) storm than MTCSWA. For the wavenumber-1 asymmetry, large differences among datasets are found regardless of the magnitude or the direction of the longest radius. JTWC estimates more asymmetric storms than JMA, and it provides greater wavenumber-1 asymmetry magnitudes on average. Asymmetric storms are most frequently oriented toward the east, northeast, and north in JTWC and MTCSWA, whereas they are most frequently oriented toward the southeast, east, and northeast in JMA. The direction of the longest gale-force (storm force) wind radius in JTWC is statistically rotated 18° (32°) clockwise to that in JMA. Although the wind radii in JTWC are of higher quality than those in JMA when using MTCSWA as a baseline, there remains a need to provide a consistent and reliable wind radii estimating process among operational centers.
Abstract
Symmetric and wavenumber-1 asymmetric characteristics of western North Pacific tropical cyclone (TC) outer wind structures are compared between best tracks from the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) and the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) from 2004 to 2014 as well as the Multiplatform Tropical Cyclone Surface Wind Analysis (MTCSWA) product from 2007 to 2014. Significant linear relationships of averaged wind radii are obtained among datasets, in which both gale-force and storm-force wind radii are generally estimated slightly smaller (much larger) by JTWC (JMA) than by MTCSWA. These correlations are strongly related to TC intensity relationships discussed in earlier work. Moreover, JTWC (JMA) on average represents a smaller (greater) derived shape parameter than MTCSWA does, implying that JTWC (JMA) typically assesses a more compact (less compact) storm than MTCSWA. For the wavenumber-1 asymmetry, large differences among datasets are found regardless of the magnitude or the direction of the longest radius. JTWC estimates more asymmetric storms than JMA, and it provides greater wavenumber-1 asymmetry magnitudes on average. Asymmetric storms are most frequently oriented toward the east, northeast, and north in JTWC and MTCSWA, whereas they are most frequently oriented toward the southeast, east, and northeast in JMA. The direction of the longest gale-force (storm force) wind radius in JTWC is statistically rotated 18° (32°) clockwise to that in JMA. Although the wind radii in JTWC are of higher quality than those in JMA when using MTCSWA as a baseline, there remains a need to provide a consistent and reliable wind radii estimating process among operational centers.
Abstract
The microphysical processes inside convective clouds play an important role in climate. They directly control the amount of detrainment of cloud hydrometeor and water vapor from updrafts. The detrained water substance in turn affects the anvil cloud formation, upper-tropospheric water vapor distribution, and thus the atmospheric radiation budget. In global climate models, convective parameterization schemes have not explicitly represented microphysics processes in updrafts until recently. In this paper, the authors provide a review of existing schemes for convective microphysics parameterization. These schemes are broadly divided into three groups: tuning-parameter-based schemes (simplest), single-moment schemes, and two-moment schemes (most comprehensive). Common weaknesses of the tuning-parameter-based and single-moment schemes are outlined. Examples are presented from one of the two-moment schemes to demonstrate the performance of the scheme in simulating the hydrometeor distribution in convection and its representation of the effect of aerosols on convection.
Abstract
The microphysical processes inside convective clouds play an important role in climate. They directly control the amount of detrainment of cloud hydrometeor and water vapor from updrafts. The detrained water substance in turn affects the anvil cloud formation, upper-tropospheric water vapor distribution, and thus the atmospheric radiation budget. In global climate models, convective parameterization schemes have not explicitly represented microphysics processes in updrafts until recently. In this paper, the authors provide a review of existing schemes for convective microphysics parameterization. These schemes are broadly divided into three groups: tuning-parameter-based schemes (simplest), single-moment schemes, and two-moment schemes (most comprehensive). Common weaknesses of the tuning-parameter-based and single-moment schemes are outlined. Examples are presented from one of the two-moment schemes to demonstrate the performance of the scheme in simulating the hydrometeor distribution in convection and its representation of the effect of aerosols on convection.
