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Abstract
The simulation of the tropical western Pacific warm pool is explored with the NCAR Climate System Model (CSM). The simulated sea surface temperatures in the Pacific basin have biases that are similar to other coupled model simulations in this region. In particular, an excessive cold tongue of water extends across the Pacific basin, with warm water on either side of this cold tongue. The warm pool region is also too cold. This cold bias exists in spite of an overestimate in surface net energy flux into this region. To understand the source of this bias in SST, simulations from the uncoupled and fully coupled models are analyzed in terms of biases in surface energy budget. These analyses suggest that the strong constraint of little ocean heat transport out of the warm pool region forces a change in SST gradient that leads to an increase in the atmospheric zonal wind. This increase in zonal wind causes an increase in latent heat flux in the warm pool region. The increase in latent heat flux is required to offset a significant (∼35 W m−2) bias in net surface solar flux. The bias in surface solar flux is due to an underestimate of model cloud shortwave absorption.
Abstract
The simulation of the tropical western Pacific warm pool is explored with the NCAR Climate System Model (CSM). The simulated sea surface temperatures in the Pacific basin have biases that are similar to other coupled model simulations in this region. In particular, an excessive cold tongue of water extends across the Pacific basin, with warm water on either side of this cold tongue. The warm pool region is also too cold. This cold bias exists in spite of an overestimate in surface net energy flux into this region. To understand the source of this bias in SST, simulations from the uncoupled and fully coupled models are analyzed in terms of biases in surface energy budget. These analyses suggest that the strong constraint of little ocean heat transport out of the warm pool region forces a change in SST gradient that leads to an increase in the atmospheric zonal wind. This increase in zonal wind causes an increase in latent heat flux in the warm pool region. The increase in latent heat flux is required to offset a significant (∼35 W m−2) bias in net surface solar flux. The bias in surface solar flux is due to an underestimate of model cloud shortwave absorption.
Abstract
Observations based on Earth Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE) satellite data indicate that there is a near cancellation between tropical longwave and shortwave cloud forcing in regions of deep convective activity. Cloud forcing depends on both cloud macrophysical properties (e.g., cloud amount, cloud height, etc.) and on microphysical properties (e.g., cloud particle size, particle shape, etc.). Hence, the near cancellation in the tropics could be due to either the macrophysical or the microphysical properties of these clouds, or a combination of these effects. By using satellite data from the ERBE and International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) and recent in situ observations of tropical anvils, it is argued that the observed near cancellation in the tropics is mainly a result of the tropical tropopause height. This conclusion depends on two observational results from comparison of ERBE and ISCCP data: 1) Both the longwave and shortwave cloud forcing are predominately due to high cloud and 2) these clouds are optically thick in both the visible and infrared region.
Abstract
Observations based on Earth Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE) satellite data indicate that there is a near cancellation between tropical longwave and shortwave cloud forcing in regions of deep convective activity. Cloud forcing depends on both cloud macrophysical properties (e.g., cloud amount, cloud height, etc.) and on microphysical properties (e.g., cloud particle size, particle shape, etc.). Hence, the near cancellation in the tropics could be due to either the macrophysical or the microphysical properties of these clouds, or a combination of these effects. By using satellite data from the ERBE and International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) and recent in situ observations of tropical anvils, it is argued that the observed near cancellation in the tropics is mainly a result of the tropical tropopause height. This conclusion depends on two observational results from comparison of ERBE and ISCCP data: 1) Both the longwave and shortwave cloud forcing are predominately due to high cloud and 2) these clouds are optically thick in both the visible and infrared region.
Abstract
In the 12–18 μm spectral region, the CO2 bands are overlapped by the H2O pure rotational band and the H2O continuum band. The 12–18 μm H2O continuum absorption is neglected in most studies concerned with the climatic effects of increased CO2. In this study, we examine the role of H2O–CO2 overlap in detail. Specifically, the effect of the water vapor continuum in the 12–18 μm region on the radiative heating due to increased CO2 is investigated. It is found that although the longwave surface radiative heating due to increased CO2 is considerably reduced at low latitudes by H2O continuum absorption, where water vapor partial pressures are high, the radiative heating of the surface/troposphere system as a whole is minimally altered.
Abstract
In the 12–18 μm spectral region, the CO2 bands are overlapped by the H2O pure rotational band and the H2O continuum band. The 12–18 μm H2O continuum absorption is neglected in most studies concerned with the climatic effects of increased CO2. In this study, we examine the role of H2O–CO2 overlap in detail. Specifically, the effect of the water vapor continuum in the 12–18 μm region on the radiative heating due to increased CO2 is investigated. It is found that although the longwave surface radiative heating due to increased CO2 is considerably reduced at low latitudes by H2O continuum absorption, where water vapor partial pressures are high, the radiative heating of the surface/troposphere system as a whole is minimally altered.
Abstract
We have compared sensitivities of four different radiative-convective climate models. Although surface temperature sensitivities with respect to changes in solar constant and atmospheric CO2, concentration are almost the same in all models, sensitivity with respect to some other climate variables varies up to a factor of 2. We have found that the surface, temperature sensitivity with respect to changes of the lapse rate is high in all models, and we emphasize the importance of a lapse rate-surface temperature feedback.
Abstract
We have compared sensitivities of four different radiative-convective climate models. Although surface temperature sensitivities with respect to changes in solar constant and atmospheric CO2, concentration are almost the same in all models, sensitivity with respect to some other climate variables varies up to a factor of 2. We have found that the surface, temperature sensitivity with respect to changes of the lapse rate is high in all models, and we emphasize the importance of a lapse rate-surface temperature feedback.
Abstract
The zonally averaged radiative balance of the stratosphere based on the measured temperature structure and gas concentrations available from the LIMS instrument is examined in detail. These data are extant for seven months (November 1978 to May 1979). The contribution to the net radiative balance due to the individual components of solar heating and longwave cooling is discussed. These components are further broken down by individual gas constituent to understand the role each gas plays in determining the total radiative heating/cooling. The deficiencies of employing a latitudinally and temporally independent Newtonian damping coefficient are also explored. In particular, the Newtonian damping time is shown to vary by a factor of two in both latitude and season. Net zonally averaged stratosphere radiative heating for the seven months of LIMS data are presented. These net heating rates are important in determining the role of advective transport of chemical constituents. An important feature that appears in the derived radiative heating is the existence of a region of net radiative cooling near the equatorial stratopause.
Abstract
The zonally averaged radiative balance of the stratosphere based on the measured temperature structure and gas concentrations available from the LIMS instrument is examined in detail. These data are extant for seven months (November 1978 to May 1979). The contribution to the net radiative balance due to the individual components of solar heating and longwave cooling is discussed. These components are further broken down by individual gas constituent to understand the role each gas plays in determining the total radiative heating/cooling. The deficiencies of employing a latitudinally and temporally independent Newtonian damping coefficient are also explored. In particular, the Newtonian damping time is shown to vary by a factor of two in both latitude and season. Net zonally averaged stratosphere radiative heating for the seven months of LIMS data are presented. These net heating rates are important in determining the role of advective transport of chemical constituents. An important feature that appears in the derived radiative heating is the existence of a region of net radiative cooling near the equatorial stratopause.
Abstract
A stratosphere-troposphere version of the NCAR Community Climate Model is used to study the radiative and dynamical response to imposed changes to the model ozone distribution for perpetual January conditions. The imposed changes include both uniform ozone reductions of 50, 15 and 100 percent and an ozone reduction scenario calculated from a two-dimensional chemical model. We compare the response of the general circulation model to a model that employs the fixed dynamical beating assumption proposed by Fels et al. We find that the uniform ozone reduction cases are not well modeled by assuming fixed dynamical heating. However, the model response to the ozone scenario is well modeled by the fixed dynamical heating model. A general result from these studies is that even for large ozone reductions (less then or equal to 75%), the Southern Hemisphere easterly jet is insensitive to ozone reductions. The Northern Hemisphere jet remains relatively constant for ozone reductions as large as 50 percent. For a 75 percent reduction in ozone the Northern Hemisphere jet is severely reduced. Thus for this model there appears to be a threshold in ozone reduction at which large changes in jet structure occur.
Abstract
A stratosphere-troposphere version of the NCAR Community Climate Model is used to study the radiative and dynamical response to imposed changes to the model ozone distribution for perpetual January conditions. The imposed changes include both uniform ozone reductions of 50, 15 and 100 percent and an ozone reduction scenario calculated from a two-dimensional chemical model. We compare the response of the general circulation model to a model that employs the fixed dynamical beating assumption proposed by Fels et al. We find that the uniform ozone reduction cases are not well modeled by assuming fixed dynamical heating. However, the model response to the ozone scenario is well modeled by the fixed dynamical heating model. A general result from these studies is that even for large ozone reductions (less then or equal to 75%), the Southern Hemisphere easterly jet is insensitive to ozone reductions. The Northern Hemisphere jet remains relatively constant for ozone reductions as large as 50 percent. For a 75 percent reduction in ozone the Northern Hemisphere jet is severely reduced. Thus for this model there appears to be a threshold in ozone reduction at which large changes in jet structure occur.
The purpose of this paper is to put forward a new estimate, in the context of previous assessments, of the annual global mean energy budget. A description is provided of the source of each component to this budget. The top-of-atmosphere shortwave and longwave flux of energy is constrained by satellite observations. Partitioning of the radiative energy throughout the atmosphere is achieved through the use of detailed radiation models for both the longwave and shortwave spectral regions. Spectral features of shortwave and longwave fluxes at both the top and surface of the earth's system are presented. The longwave radiative forcing of the climate system for both clear (125 W m−2) and cloudy (155 W m−2) conditions are discussed. The authors find that for the clear sky case the contribution due to water vapor to the total longwave radiative forcing is 75 W m−2, while for carbon dioxide it is 32 W m−2. Clouds alter these values, and the effects of clouds on both the longwave and shortwave budget are addressed. In particular, the shielding effect by clouds on absorption and emission by water vapor is as large as the direct cloud forcing. Because the net surface heat budget must balance, the radiative fluxes constrain the sum of the sensible and latent heat fluxes, which can also be estimated independently.
The purpose of this paper is to put forward a new estimate, in the context of previous assessments, of the annual global mean energy budget. A description is provided of the source of each component to this budget. The top-of-atmosphere shortwave and longwave flux of energy is constrained by satellite observations. Partitioning of the radiative energy throughout the atmosphere is achieved through the use of detailed radiation models for both the longwave and shortwave spectral regions. Spectral features of shortwave and longwave fluxes at both the top and surface of the earth's system are presented. The longwave radiative forcing of the climate system for both clear (125 W m−2) and cloudy (155 W m−2) conditions are discussed. The authors find that for the clear sky case the contribution due to water vapor to the total longwave radiative forcing is 75 W m−2, while for carbon dioxide it is 32 W m−2. Clouds alter these values, and the effects of clouds on both the longwave and shortwave budget are addressed. In particular, the shielding effect by clouds on absorption and emission by water vapor is as large as the direct cloud forcing. Because the net surface heat budget must balance, the radiative fluxes constrain the sum of the sensible and latent heat fluxes, which can also be estimated independently.
Abstract
The energy budget of the latest version of the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) Community Climate Model (CCM3) is described. The energy budget at the top of the atmosphere and at the earth’s surface is compared to observational estimates. The annual mean, seasonal mean, and seasonal cycle of the energy budget are evaluated in comparison with earth radiation budget data at the top of the atmosphere and with the NCAR Ocean Model (NCOM) forcing data at the ocean’s surface. Individual terms in the energy budget are discussed. The transient response of the top-of-atmosphere radiative budget to anomalies in tropical sea surface temperature is also presented. In general, the CCM3 is in excellent agreement with ERBE data in terms of annual and seasonal means. The seasonal cycle of the top-of-atmosphere radiation budget is also in good (<10 W m−2) agreement with ERBE data. At the surface, the model shortwave flux over the oceans is too large compared to data obtained by W. G. Large and colleagues (∼20–30 W m−2). It is argued that this bias is related to a model underestimate of shortwave cloud absorption. The major biases in the model are related to the position of deep convection in the tropical Pacific, summertime convective activity over land regions, and the model’s inability to realistically represent marine stratus and stratocumulus clouds. Despite these deficiencies, the model’s implied ocean heat transport is in very good agreement with the explicit ocean heat transport of the NCOM uncoupled simulations. This result is a major reason for the success of the NCAR Climate System Model.
Abstract
The energy budget of the latest version of the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) Community Climate Model (CCM3) is described. The energy budget at the top of the atmosphere and at the earth’s surface is compared to observational estimates. The annual mean, seasonal mean, and seasonal cycle of the energy budget are evaluated in comparison with earth radiation budget data at the top of the atmosphere and with the NCAR Ocean Model (NCOM) forcing data at the ocean’s surface. Individual terms in the energy budget are discussed. The transient response of the top-of-atmosphere radiative budget to anomalies in tropical sea surface temperature is also presented. In general, the CCM3 is in excellent agreement with ERBE data in terms of annual and seasonal means. The seasonal cycle of the top-of-atmosphere radiation budget is also in good (<10 W m−2) agreement with ERBE data. At the surface, the model shortwave flux over the oceans is too large compared to data obtained by W. G. Large and colleagues (∼20–30 W m−2). It is argued that this bias is related to a model underestimate of shortwave cloud absorption. The major biases in the model are related to the position of deep convection in the tropical Pacific, summertime convective activity over land regions, and the model’s inability to realistically represent marine stratus and stratocumulus clouds. Despite these deficiencies, the model’s implied ocean heat transport is in very good agreement with the explicit ocean heat transport of the NCOM uncoupled simulations. This result is a major reason for the success of the NCAR Climate System Model.
Abstract
This study examines the response of the climate simulation by the National Center for Atmospheric Research Community Climate Model (CCM3) to the introduction of the Zhang and McFarlane convective parameterization in the model. It is shown that in the CCM3 the simulated surface climate in the tropical convective regimes, especially in the western Pacific warm pool, is markedly improved, yielding a much better agreement with the recent observations. The systematic bias in the surface evaporation, surface wind stress over the tropical Pacific Ocean in previous model simulations is significantly reduced, owing to the better simulation of the surface flow.
Experiments using identical initial and boundary conditions, but different convection schemes, are performed to isolate the role of the convection schemes and to understand the interaction between convection and the large-scale circulation in a convecting atmosphere. The comparison of the results from these experiments in the western Pacific warm pool suggests that use of the Zhang and McFarlane scheme makes a significant contribution to the improved climate simulation in CCM3. The simulated atmosphere using the Zhang and McFarlane scheme exhibits a quasi-equilibrium between convection and the large-scale processes. When this scheme is removed from the CCM3, such a quasi-equilibrium is no longer observed. In addition, the simulated thermodynamic structures, the surface evaporation, and surface winds in the Pacific warm pool become very similar to those in the CCM2 climate.
Examination of the temporal evolution of the various fields demonstrates that the stabilization of the atmosphere using the new convection scheme takes place during the transition from nonequilibrium to quasi equilibrium at the beginning of the time integration. After quasi equilibrium is reached, the atmosphere is warmer and more stable compared to the run without the new scheme. Associated with the more stable stratification, the atmospheric circulation becomes weaker, thus the surface winds and evaporation are weaker because of the coupling between thermodynamics and dynamics in the tropical troposphere.
Abstract
This study examines the response of the climate simulation by the National Center for Atmospheric Research Community Climate Model (CCM3) to the introduction of the Zhang and McFarlane convective parameterization in the model. It is shown that in the CCM3 the simulated surface climate in the tropical convective regimes, especially in the western Pacific warm pool, is markedly improved, yielding a much better agreement with the recent observations. The systematic bias in the surface evaporation, surface wind stress over the tropical Pacific Ocean in previous model simulations is significantly reduced, owing to the better simulation of the surface flow.
Experiments using identical initial and boundary conditions, but different convection schemes, are performed to isolate the role of the convection schemes and to understand the interaction between convection and the large-scale circulation in a convecting atmosphere. The comparison of the results from these experiments in the western Pacific warm pool suggests that use of the Zhang and McFarlane scheme makes a significant contribution to the improved climate simulation in CCM3. The simulated atmosphere using the Zhang and McFarlane scheme exhibits a quasi-equilibrium between convection and the large-scale processes. When this scheme is removed from the CCM3, such a quasi-equilibrium is no longer observed. In addition, the simulated thermodynamic structures, the surface evaporation, and surface winds in the Pacific warm pool become very similar to those in the CCM2 climate.
Examination of the temporal evolution of the various fields demonstrates that the stabilization of the atmosphere using the new convection scheme takes place during the transition from nonequilibrium to quasi equilibrium at the beginning of the time integration. After quasi equilibrium is reached, the atmosphere is warmer and more stable compared to the run without the new scheme. Associated with the more stable stratification, the atmospheric circulation becomes weaker, thus the surface winds and evaporation are weaker because of the coupling between thermodynamics and dynamics in the tropical troposphere.
Abstract
Climatological properties for selected aspects of the thermodynamic structure and hydrologic cycle are presented from a 15-yr numerical simulation conducted with the National Center for Atmospheric Research Community Climate Model, version 3 (CCM3), using an observed sea surface temperature climatology. In most regards, the simulated thermal structure and hydrologic cycle represent a marked improvement when compared with earlier versions of the CCM. Three major modifications to parameterized physics are primarily responsible for the more notable improvements in the simulation: modifications to the diagnosis of cloud optical properties, modifications to the diagnosis of boundary layer processes, and the incorporation of a penetrative formulation for deep cumulus convection. The various roles of these physical parameterization changes will be discussed in the context of the simulation strengths and weaknesses.
Abstract
Climatological properties for selected aspects of the thermodynamic structure and hydrologic cycle are presented from a 15-yr numerical simulation conducted with the National Center for Atmospheric Research Community Climate Model, version 3 (CCM3), using an observed sea surface temperature climatology. In most regards, the simulated thermal structure and hydrologic cycle represent a marked improvement when compared with earlier versions of the CCM. Three major modifications to parameterized physics are primarily responsible for the more notable improvements in the simulation: modifications to the diagnosis of cloud optical properties, modifications to the diagnosis of boundary layer processes, and the incorporation of a penetrative formulation for deep cumulus convection. The various roles of these physical parameterization changes will be discussed in the context of the simulation strengths and weaknesses.
