Abstract

The impact of ocean surface waves on the structure and intensity of three tropical cyclones and a topographically forced bora event is investigated using a coupled atmosphere–ocean wave modeling system. The coupled system is capable of representing surface momentum fluxes that are enhanced due to young ocean waves in fetch-limited conditions, which yield surface roughness lengths that significantly depart from the conventional Charnock-type formulation. In general, the impact of ocean-wave-induced stress on the tropical cyclone central pressure was quite variable with ocean wave feedback resulting in changes ranging from 8 hPa deeper to 3 hPa shallower. The increased low-level stress due to the ocean waves reduced the near-surface winds by 2–3 m s⁻¹, with local differences in excess of 10 m s⁻¹, which directly led to a 10% reduction in the significant wave height maxima. The reduced significant wave heights in the coupled model were in closer agreement with observations for Tropical Cyclone Bonnie than for the uncoupled model. The tropical cyclone tracks were generally insensitive to ocean wave feedback effects. The boundary layer structure was found to be generally insensitive to large roughness enhancements associated with coupled ocean wave feedbacks for topographically forced high wind phenomena, such as the bora.

Abstract

The role of mesoscale orography along the central California coast in the development and evolution of a coastal jet and rainband is investigated using a high-resolution, triply nested, nonhydrostatic numerical model. Comparison of the model simulations, which use horizontal grid increments of 5 and 2 km on the inner computational meshes, with a coastal mesoscale observation network indicates that the finescale structure of the jet and rainband dynamics are adequately simulated, although phase and orientation errors occur. The observed and simulated near-surface winds have maximum speeds that exceed 22 m s⁻¹ and a direction nearly parallel to the coastline and topography.

Force balance analysis indicates that blocking in the lowest 500 m and flow over the coastal range above this layer contribute to mesoscale pressure perturbations, including pressure ridging upstream of the coastal mountains, which forces the ageostrophic dynamics of the coastal jet. Pressure perturbations associated with the topographic flows induce a complex mesoscale response that adds rich mesoscale structure to the jet including a wake region that forms on the lee side of the coastal range that limits the horizontal scale of the jet. Sensitivity test results underscore the multiprocess character of the coastal dynamics and the importance of the coastal topography and differential frictional drag at the land–sea interface for the formation and amplification of the jet. The mesoscale response to steep coastal topography results in a 45% enhancement to the near-surface jet strength. The onshore movement of line convection at the leading edge of a weak front is impeded by steep coastal topography in both the radar observations and numerical simulations. Low-level blocking forces the rainband to emulate a wedge-shaped structure with a coastal jet that is dynamically trapped between the steep coastal topography and the front.

Abstract

The diurnal variation of mountain waves and wave drag associated with flow past mesoscale ridges has been examined using the Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Mesoscale Prediction System (COAMPS) and an analytical boundary layer (BL) model. The wave drag exhibits substantial diurnal variation in response to the change in the atmospheric BL characteristics, such as the BL depth, shape factor, and stability. During daytime, a convective BL develops, characterized by a shallow shear layer near the surface and a deep well-mixed layer aloft, both of which tend to decrease the wave drag. As a result, the convective BL could significantly weaken mountain waves and reduce the momentum flux by up to 90%. Near the surface, the flow pattern resembles a potential flow with a surface wind maximum located near the ridge crest. During nighttime, a shallow stable BL develops, and the modulation of wave drag by the stable nocturnal BL is governed by the BL Froude number (Fr). If the BL flow is supercritical, the drag increases as Fr decreases toward unity and reaches the maximum around Fr = 1, where the drag could be several times larger than the corresponding free-slip hydrostatic wave drag. If the BL flow is subcritical because of excessive cooling, the drag decreases with decreasing Froude number and the flow pattern near the surface resembles a typical subcritical solution with the wind maximum located near the ridge crest.

Abstract

Two topographically generated cirrus plume events have been examined through satellite observations and real-data simulations. On 30 October 2002, an approximately 70-km-wide cirrus plume, revealed by a high-resolution Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) image and a series of Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) images, originated from the Sierra Nevada ridge and extended northeastward for more than 400 km. On 5 December 2000, an approximately 400-km-wide cloud plume originated from the Southern Rocky Mountain massif and extended eastward for more than 500 km, the development of which was captured by a series of GOES images. The real-data simulations of the two cirrus plume events successfully capture the presence of these plumes and show reasonable agreement with the MODIS and GOES images in terms of the timing, location, orientation, length, and altitude of these cloud plumes. The synoptic and mesoscale aspects of the plume events, and the dynamics and microphysics relevant to the plume formation, have been discussed. Two common ingredients relevant to the cirrus plume formation have been identified, namely, a relatively deep moist layer aloft with high relative humidity and low temperature (≤−40°C near the cloud top), and strong updrafts over high terrain and slow descent downstream in the upper troposphere associated with terrain-induced inertia–gravity waves. The rapid increase of the relative humidity associated with strong updrafts creates a high number concentration of small ice crystals through homogeneous nucleation. The overpopulated ice crystals decrease the relative humidity, which, in return, inhibits small crystals from growing into large crystals. The small crystals with slow terminal velocities (<0.2 m s⁻¹) can be advected hundreds of kilometers before falling out of the moist layer.

Abstract

The characteristics of gravity waves excited by the complex terrain of the central Alps during the intensive observational period (IOP) 8 of the Mesoscale Alpine Programme (MAP) is studied through the analysis of aircraft in situ measurements, GPS dropsondes, radiosondes, airborne lidar data, and numerical simulations.

Mountain wave breaking occurred over the central Alps on 21 October 1999, associated with wind shear, wind turning, and a critical level with Richardson number less than unity just above the flight level (∼5.7 km) of the research aircraft NCAR Electra. The Electra flew two repeated transverses across the Ötztaler Alpen, during which localized turbulence was sampled. The observed maximum vertical motion was 9 m s⁻¹, corresponding to a turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) maximum of 10.5 m² s⁻². Spectrum analysis indicates an inertia subrange up to 5-km wavelength and multiple energy-containing spikes corresponding to a wide range of wavelengths.

Manual analysis of GPS dropsonde data indicates the presence of strong flow descent and a downslope windstorm over the lee slope of the Ötztaler Alpen. Farther downstream, a transition occurs across a deep hydraulic jump associated with the ascent of isentropes and local wind reversal. During the first transverse, the turbulent region is convectively unstable as indicated by a positive sensible heat flux within the turbulent portion of the segment. The TKE derived from the flight-level data indicates multiple narrow spikes, which match the patterns shown in the diagnosed buoyancy production rate of TKE. The turbulence is nonisotropic with the major TKE contribution from the υ-wind component. The convectively unstable zone is advected downstream during the second transverse and the turbulence becomes much stronger and more isotropic.

The downslope windstorm, flow descent, and transition to turbulence through a hydraulic jump are captured by a real-data Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Mesoscale Predition System (COAMPS) simulation. Several idealized simulations are performed motivated by the observations of multiscale waves forced by the complex terrain underneath. The simulations indicate that multiscale terrain promotes wave breaking, increases mountain drag, and enhances the downslope winds and TKE generation.

Abstract

The impact of moist processes on mountain waves over Sierra Nevada Mountain Range is investigated in this study. Aircraft measurements over Owens Valley obtained during the Terrain-induced Rotor Experiment (T-REX) indicate that mountain waves were generally weaker when the relative humidity maximum near the mountaintop level was above 70%. Four moist cases with a RH maximum near the mountaintop level greater than 90% have been further examined using a mesoscale model and a linear wave model. Two competing mechanisms governing the influence of moisture on mountain waves have been identified. The first mechanism involves low-level moisture that enhances flow–terrain interaction by reducing windward flow blocking. In the second mechanism, the moist airflow tends to damp mountain waves through destratifying the airflow and reducing the buoyancy frequency. The second mechanism dominates in the presence of a deep moist layer in the lower to middle troposphere, and the wave amplitude is significantly reduced associated with a smaller moist buoyancy frequency. With a shallow moist layer and strong low-level flow, the two mechanisms can become comparable in magnitude and largely offset each other.

Abstract

The impact of diurnal forcing on a downslope wind event that occurred in Owens Valley in California during the Sierra Rotors Project (SRP) in the spring of 2004 has been examined based on observational analysis and diagnosis of numerical simulations. The observations indicate that while the upstream flow was characterized by persistent westerlies at and above the mountaintop level the cross-valley winds in Owens Valley exhibited strong diurnal variation. The numerical simulations using the Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Mesoscale Prediction System (COAMPS) capture many of the observed salient features and indicate that the in-valley flow evolved among three states during a diurnal cycle. Before sunrise, moderate downslope winds were confined to the western slope of Owens Valley (shallow penetration state). Surface heating after sunrise weakened the downslope winds and mountain waves and eventually led to the decoupling of the well-mixed valley air from the westerlies aloft around local noon (decoupled state). The westerlies plunged into the valley in the afternoon and propagated across the valley floor (in-valley westerly state). After sunset, the westerlies within the valley retreated toward the western slope, where the downslope winds persisted throughout the night.

Abstract

During Intensive Observation Period 2 of the Genesis of Atlantic Lows Experiment, a number of mesoscale phenomena were observed with special and conventional observing systems over the land and coastal waters. This study involved analysis of these data for the period 24–26 January 1986 in order to define the structure and dynamics of three features: the coastal front; a shallow cyclone that propagated along the coastal front, modifying it as it moved northward; and a low-level jet that formed in the strong coastal pressure-gradient field.

The coastal front formed in an existing pressure trough over the Gulf Stream as a result of both ageostrophic deformation and differential diabatic heating. There existed considerable variability in the frontal strength and position on both the mesoalpha and mesobeta scales. The level of strongest frontogenesis was near the surface, with frontolysis calculated above 950 mb.

The marine atmospheric boundary layer (MABL) over the Gulf Stream was conducive to cyclone formation. Latent and sensible heat fluxes of up to 800 W m⁻² and 400 W m⁻² respectively, were calculated early in the study period, and a deep, moist conditionally unstable boundary layer was present. Calculation of the vorticity tendency associated with the sensible heating yielded a narrow band of positive values to the east of the coastline. As a weak midtropospheric wave reached this favorable region to the cut of Florida, a shallow cyclone formed along the coastal front. As the cyclone tracked northeastward along the front, geostrophic deformation ahead of it strengthened the front while strong cold-air advection to its rear displaced the coastal front to the east, leaving behind a dry, stable MABL with low-level, cold-air advection and weak descent. As the cyclone moved northward along the front, conditionally unstable, moist, low-level air ahead was forced by the southeasterly flow to rise along the coastal front and its extension over the cold air near the coastline, causing enhanced precipitation.

A low-level northeasterly jet was also observed over the Carolinas, and formed as a result of the strong low- level pressure gradient created by the proximity of the cold continental air over land and the warm air of the Gulf Stream MABL near the coast. This jet, with a maximum near 960 mb, showed a diurnal variation of up to 20 m s⁻¹ which likely resulted from day/night variations in mixing at jet level, an inertial oscillation with the frictional decoupling of the low-level flow at sunset, and isallobaric accelerations.

Abstract

The interaction between a tropical cyclone (TC) and an upper-level trough is simulated in an idealized framework using Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Mesoscale Prediction System (COAMPS) for Tropical Cyclones (COAMPS-TC) on a β plane. We explore the effect of the trough on the environment, structure, and intensity of the TC. In a simulation that does not have a trough, environmental inertial stability is dominated by Coriolis, and outflow remains preferentially directed equatorward throughout the simulation. In the presence of a trough, negative storm-relative tangential wind in the base of the trough reduces the inertial stability such that the outflow shifts from equatorward to poleward. This interaction results in a ~24-h period of enhanced upper-level divergence coincident with intensification of the TC. Sensitivity tests reveal that if the TC is too far from the trough, favorable interaction does not occur. If the TC is too close to the trough, the storm weakens because of enhanced vertical wind shear. Only when the relative distance between the TC and the trough is 0.2–0.3 times the wavelength of the trough in x and 0.8–1.2 times the amplitude of the trough in y does favorable interaction and TC intensification occur. However, stochastic effects make it difficult to isolate the intensity change associated directly with the trough interaction. Outflow is found to be predominantly ageostrophic at small radii and deflects to the right (in the Northern Hemisphere) since it is unbalanced. The outflow becomes predominantly geostrophic at larger radii but not before a rightward deflection has already occurred. This finding sheds light on why the outflow accelerates toward but generally never reaches the region of lowest inertial stability.

Abstract

A method is presented to compute the spanwise vorticity in polar coordinates from 2D vertical cross sections of high-resolution line-of-sight Doppler wind lidar observations. The method uses the continuity equation to derive the velocity component perpendicular to the observed line-of-sight velocity, which then yields the spanwise vorticity component. The results of the method are tested using a ground-based Doppler lidar, which was deployed during the Terrain-Induced Rotor Experiment (T-REX). The resulting fields can be used to identify and quantify the strength and size of vortices, such as those associated with atmospheric rotors. Furthermore, they may serve to investigate the dynamics and evolution of vortices and to evaluate numerical simulations. A demonstration of the method and comparison with high-resolution numerical simulations reveals that the derived vorticity can explain 66% of the mean-square vorticity fluctuations, has a reasonably skillful magnitude, exhibits no significant bias, and is in qualitative agreement with model-derived vorticity.